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SMITHSONIAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
““ EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ””__sSMITHSON
(PUBLICATION 3387)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1936
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A,
ADVERTISEMENT
The present series, entitled “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,’ is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the
Institution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited, and
the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of science.
Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology, mineral-
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sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based
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(iii)
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CONTENTS
. Coomaraswamy, ANANDA K. The darker side of dawn. 18 pp.,
Apr. £7, 1035. (Publ. 3704.)
. Emmart, Emity Watcorr. Concerning the Badianus manu-
script, an Aztec herbal, “ Codex Barberini, Latin 241” (Vati-
can Library). 14 pp., 4 pls., May 18, 1935. (Publ. 3329.)
BucHanan, L. L. Thomas Lincoln Casey and the Casey collec-
tion of Coleoptera. 15 pp., I pl., June 8, 1935. (Publ. 3330.)
Roserts, Frank H. H., Jr. A Folsom complex: Preliminary
report on investigations at the Lindenmeier site in northern
Colorado. 35 pp., 16 pls., 3 figs., June 20, 1935. (Publ. 3333.)
Frint, Lewis H., and McAtitster, E. D. Wave lengths of radia-
tion in the visible spectrum inhibiting the germination of light-
sensitive lettuce seed. 11 pp., 5 figs., June 24, 1935. (Publ.
3334-)
Snoperass, R. E. The abdominal mechanisms of a grasshopper.
89 pp., 41 figs., Sept. 25, 1935. (Publ. 3335.)
Witson, CHARLES BrancH. A new and important copepod
habitat. 13 pp., 8 figs., Sept. 20, 1935. (Publ. 3336.)
BUSHNELL, Davin I., Jr. The Manahoac tribes in Virginia, 1608.
Soapueen pisscruitics.Oct..0,.1935. ( Publ.63337.)
CHAPIN, Epwarp A. Review of the genus Chlaenobia Blanchard
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). 20 pp., 12 figs., Sept. 23, 1935.
(Publ. 3338. )
Assot, C. G. Solar radiation and weather studies. 89 pp., 3 pls.,
28 ties. Aue? 15,1935. (Publ. 3330.)
HroiiéKa, ALES. Melanesians and Australians and the peopling
of America. 58 pp.,-Oct: 18, 1935. (Publ 3347.)
. Apspsot, C. G. Mount St. Katherine, an excellent solar-radiation
Slationue ir pp, 2 pis, © te., Oct. 5.1935. (Publ. 3342)
. BLACKWELDER, RicHarp E. Morphology of the coleopterous
family Staphylinidae. 102 pp., 30 figs., Mar. 2, 1936. (Publ.
3343-)
WALKER, Winstow M. A Caddo burial site at Natchitoches,
Louisiana. 15 pp., 6 pls., 3 figs., Dec. 17, 1935. (Publ. 3345.)
JoHnstTon, Eart S. Aerial fertilization of wheat plants with
carbon-dioxide gas. 9 pp., 6 pls., Dec. 20, 1935. (Publ. 3346.)
BucHANAN, L. L. The genus Panscopus Schoenherr (Coleop-
tera: Curculionidae). 18 pp., 2 figs., Feb. 6. 1936. (Publ.
3376.)
Meter, FLorENcE E. Growth of a green alga in isolated wave-
length regions. 12 pp., I pl., 1 fig., Feb. 21, 1936. (Publ. 3377.)
(v)
+3 &
fy ren ))
re a we pies one
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 1
THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN
BY
ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY
Fellow for Research in Indian, Persian and Muhammadan Art
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
N28
Am. 5TH ONOF
od, itvt /
RCMINGTON Se”
220209000002!
(PUBLICATION 3304)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 17, 1935
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
TRE DARKER SIDE ‘OF DAWN
By ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY
INTRODUCTION
Students of theology and mythology are well aware that the concept
of deity presents itself to us under a double aspect ; on the one hand
as gracious, on the other as awful. He evokes both love and fear.
He is both a light and a darkness, a revelation and a mystery. In the
latter and awful aspect, clouds and darkness are round about him. The
Light is Life, the Darkness Death. The one corresponds to our concept
of Good, the other to our concept of Evil, within the recognized defini-
tions of good as “that which all creatures desire’’, and of evil as
“that which all creatures would avoid.” A majority of religions in
their exoteric formulation treat these contrasted aspects in outward
operation as distinct and opposed forces, divine and satanic, celestial
and chthonic. Satan is commonly thought of as a Serpent or Dragon
and is often so represented, upon the stage or in art. Yet the Solar
hero and the Dragon, at war on the open stage, are blood brothers
in the green room. From the Christian point of view, the fallen Angels
are “ fallen in grace, but not in nature”; and from the Islamic, Iblis
is restored at the end of time; in other words Satan becomes again
Lucifer. The same deity, Zeus for example in Greek mythology, may
be worshipped and represented both in anthropomorphic and in snake
forms. Serpent worship and its iconography, despite their outwardly
“primitive ’’ appearance, have profound metaphysical foundations.
Metaphysical religion envisages a “‘ Supreme Identity ” (in the Rg
Veda tad ekam, ‘* That One”’) in which the outwardly opposing forces
are one impartible principle; the lion and the lamb lying down to-
gether. The contrasted powers are separated only by the very nature
of reason, which sees things apart as subject and object, affirmation
and negation, act and potentiality, Heaven and Earth. Contemplative
practice alike in East and West seeks to approach divinity in both
aspects, avoiding a one-sided vision of the Unity; willing to know
Him both as being and non-being, life and death, God and Godhead.
The contemplatio in caligine, for example, is directed to the dark side
of deity; and corresponds to the Indian cult of Siva-Rudra, for the
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 1
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
primordial Darkness remains in Him as Rudra (X, 129, 3 and Maitri
Up N52):
Evidence can be assembled from the Rg Veda and other sources to
show that the deity in the darkness, unmanifested, in his ground, not
proceeding, or as it is technically expressed, ab intra, is conceived of
in forms that are not human-angelic, but theriomorphic ; and typically
in that of a brooding serpent or fiery dragon, inhabiting a cave or
lying on a mountain, where he guards a treasure against all comers,
and above all restrains the Rivers of Life from flowing. The creative
act involves a maiming, division, or transformation of the girdling
serpent, often thought of as “ footless and headless”, that is with
its tail in its mouth. The contraction and identification of this pri-
mordial and impartite Unity is envisaged on the one hand as a volun-
tary sacrifice, or on the other as affected by violence, exercised by the
life-desirous Powers of Light. The celebration of the conquest of
the Serpent by the Powers of Light is a basic theme of the Vedic
hymns; an aspect of the Great Battle between the Devas and Asuras
(“Angels ” and “ Titans ’’) for the possession of the worlds of light.
It is the battle between St. George and the Dragon. At the same time
there can be no question that the Powers of Light and Powers of Dark-
ness are the same and only Power. Devas and Asuras are alike
Prajapati’s or Tvastr’s children; the Serpents are the Suns. It 1s
entirely a question of “orientation”. At the end of an Aeon the
Powers of Darkness are in turn victorious.
The Powers of Darkness are also at home as Water-snakes (Indian
naga) or Merfolk in the Sea that represents the maternal possibility
of being. The first assumption in Godhead, Death, is being. Life and
Death, God and Godhead, Mitra and Varuna, apara and para Brahman,
are related from this point of view as a progenitive pair (Indian
mithuna). The determinative, paternal principle accomplishes in con-
junction with the passive maternal principle “‘ the act of fecundation
latent in eternity ” (Eckhart). The generation of the Son “is a vital
operation from a conjoint principle . . . . that by which the Father
begets is the divine nature ” (St. Thomas, Swmma Theologica, 1, q.27,
a.2, and q.41, a.5). The Father is Intellect, the Mother Word, the
Child Life (Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, I, 5, 7). Just as the Father
works through the Son, so the human artist works “ by a word con-
ceived in his intellect ’ (St. Thomas, loc. cit.,\ 1, q.45,)a.6)=) fo this
way every ontological formulation affirms the duality of the Unity
as well as the unity of the Duality. It will be evident that whatever
holds for the masculine will hold also for the feminine aspect of the
Unity ; in the following essay it is primarily the Vedic concept of the
ab intra form of the feminine principle that is discussed.
NOE THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY 3
For many readers the ontological principles outlined above will be
of interest and value, not so much by first intention as “ traces” of
the Way, but rather and only as providing a logical explanation for
certain typical forms of the creation myth that is a common property
of all cultures. Regarded, however, even from this purely “ scientific ”
point of view, the student of mythology, folklore, and fairy tale will
find in these principles a valuable means of recognizing and corre-
lating the varying forms that the world myth assumes. The story is
not only of a time before history began, but was already told in a time
before history was recorded. We may be sure that the pseudo-histor-
ical aspects that the story has assumed, for example in the Volsunga
Saga, in Beowulf, or the Mahabharata, are later developments and
partial rationalizations. Fragments of the story will be recognized in
the dogmatic life of every Messiah; in the miracles, for example, at-
tributed to Cuchullain, Buddha, Moses, and Christ. Other fragments
survive in fairy tales and even in nursery rhymes; in the story, for ex-
ample of the human hero who crosses water or climbs a tree and thus
returns to the magical otherworld, where he rescues or carries off
the imprisoned daughter of a giant or magician; and in the stories
of mermaids or Undines, who fall in love with a mortal, acquire a
soul, and feet in place of their scaly tails.
The author trusts that the foregoing remarks will serve to introduce,
however inadequately, the theme of the Darker Side of Dawn, the
real sense of which may not be immediately apparent to the general
reader. For the professed student of the Rg Veda the actual evidences
of the texts are assembled in the accustomed and more technical man-
ner ; the thesis, although it might have been expanded at much greater
length, may be taken to be complete in itself.
THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN
In an article due to appear in the Journal of the American Oriental
Society, but of which the publication has been delayed for lack of
space, I have discussed the relation of the masculine Angels (deval)
on the one hand with the Titans (asurah) and Serpents (sarpa/)
on the other, showing that the former are to be regarded as sacrificial
conversions or transformations of the latter. By way of introduction
to what follows, and for the sake of the parallel wordings, the gen-
eral nature of the evidence for the transformation of the Serpents
in this sense may be indicated. The evidence is primarily Rg Vedic,
but is conveniently resumed in Pajicaviiiisa Brahmana, XXV, 15,
where the Serpents, by means of a sacrificial session, are enabled to
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
cast their inveterated** skins (hitv@ jirnan tacam) and to glide
forward (ati-srp), changing their forms, and thus “ the Serpents are
the Adityas”’ (sarpyd va addityah) ; cf. Satapatha Brahmana, VII, 3,
2, 14, where Agni is found upon the lotus leaf, having “crept up
out of the Waters” (adbhya upédsrptam). The evidence for the
identification of Agni ab extra with Ahi Budhnya ab intra need not
be presented in detail, but it may be noted that in IV, 1, 11,’ Agni,
“ footless and headless, hiding both his ends ” (apdd asirso guhamdano
anta@) is clearly thought of as a coiled snake, perhaps with its tail
in its mouth; and that in the same way the Sun is originally “ footless ”’,
but is given feet by Varuna that he may proceed (apade pada prati
dhatave, I, 24, 8) ; in other passages, Indra, Agni, Soma, and Varuna
are similarly described as “‘ footed” (padavih, m.); cf. padavi (f.)
as footprint, vestigium pedi, in I, 72, 2 and X, 71, 3, and similarly
pada, passim. Apdd, on the other hand, is a natural kenning for
“snake ’”’; in III, 30, 8, the demons Kunaru and Vrtra are handless
and footless (ahastam, apadam), and Vrtra similarly in I, 32, 7. The
Satapatha Brahmana, 1, 6, 3, 9, in connection with the transformation
of Soma, is explicit “ In that he was rolling, he became Vrtra; in that
he was footless, he became Ahi” (yad apat samabhavat tasmad als).
In the following shorter discussion, complete in itself, there is as-
sembled a part of the corresponding evidence on the side of the femi-
nine principles.
We now proceed to consider the case of Dawn (sas), whose lauds
are so familiar to every student of the Rg Veda. It is well known
that Night and Day or Dawn (naktosasa du. f.) are sisters, of like
mind, who move successively upon a common path, Night ‘‘ when
she hath conceived for Savitr’s quickening yielding the womb to
Dawn” (I, 113, 1-3). “ Sister to mightier sister yields the womb ”
(I, 124, 8; it is the younger sister that is victorious, the Devi re-
placing the Asuri, cf. Mahabharata XII, 35, 25, “ The Asuras are
the elder brothers, the Devas indeed the younger ’’). ‘ Successively
they nurse the Yearling Calf ” (1, 95,1), i. e. Agni, who has thus two
mothers (ubhe sa matror abhavat putra, III, 2, 2, and dvimata, pas-
sim) ; “ One mother holds the Calf, the other rests (Rseti)..... We:
variant pair, have made yourselves twin beauties (vapiiiisi), one that
is black (krsnam) and one that shines” (III, 55, 4 and 11, cf. V, 2,
2). In the same way the Bambino, whether Sun or Fire, has two
aspects corresponding to those of the sister Dawns (usasd viriipe, V, 1,
4), “with one of whom is he glaucous (hart), with the other bright
* For Notes, see p. 12 f.
NOs I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAW N—COOMARASWAMY 5
(Sukra) and shining (suvarca)”, I, 95, 1; as Pisan he is of two dif-
ferent aspects, like Day and Night, one bright, one dark (VI, 58, T) ;
like the Dawns, he “ goes back and forth ”, I, 164, 38, “ now becometh
sterile (starih), now begets (site, tantamount to savita bhavati, ‘ be-
comes Savitr’), he shapes his aspect as he will”, VII, ror, 3; cf.
Atharva Veda, VI, 72, 1, “As the black snake displays himself, as-
suming such forms (vapiziisi) as he will, by titan magic ” ; “ Immortal,
uterine-brother (sayonih) of the mortal, they move eternally con-
versely, men mark the one and fail to mark the other”, I, 164. 38."
When Night and Day (usasda, the “ sister dawns”) have carried him,
Agni is born “ full strong and white, in the beginning of days”’ (V. 1,
4) ;° the use of usasa (du. f.) here to mean Night and Day is paralleled
by “ days of diverse hue” (visuriipe ahani, I, 123, 7 and VI, 58, 1),
and “black day and white day ” (ahas ca krsnam ahar arjunami ca,
VI, 9, 1).° These sister Dawns are not only thought of as mothers
of the Sun or Agni, but are brides of the Sun, as in I, 123, 10 where
Dawn is desired by the Sun to be his maiden (yos@), IV, 5, 13 where
the Dawns (pl.) are called the consorts (patnih) of the immortal Sun,
VII, 75, 5 where the generous Dawn (maghoni usa) is called the
maiden of the Sun (s#ryasya yosa@) ; in VII, 69, 4, she is again the
Sun-maiden (si#ryasya yosa), and in AV., VIII, 9, 12, the sister
Dawns are called the Sun’s consorts (usasd .. . . 5 stirya-patni). The
Dawn is also a sister of Bhaga and kinswoman (jamz) of Varuna
(1, 123, 5); and is “ Heaven’s daughter ”, passim. In VII, 60, 4,
she is the daughter of the Sun (yos@ ... . siiro duhita), involving
the incest motif more familiar in connection with Prajapati, cf. also
V, 55, 6, where Pitsan is called the second husband of his mother
and the seducer of his sister (mdatur didisum ... . svasur jaral) ;
“incest” being inevitable because of the kinship (jamitva) of all
the manifested principles, ab intra. Pisan is Siirya’s lover in VI, 58, 3.
The identity of Dawn (uwsas) with Surya is thus evident, as is also
that of the sister Dawns (usasd) with Saranyi and her savarnda.'
In Vajasaneyi Samhita, I11, 10, Night (ratri), and Dawn (usas) or
Day (ahas) are Indra’s consorts (indravati), Indra representing the
Sun.
That Usas may thus denote as well the Night as Dawn or Day
renders intelligible certain neglected passages of RV. in which the
Dawn is referred to as a sinister power; sinister, that is, essentially,
and not merely accidentally in that the passing days shorten the span
of life (1, 92, 11) whence Usas is called jarayanti (VII, 75, 4) from
ir, “to inveterate”.* In IV, 30, 8-11, Indra is praised as having
“ struck down Heaven’s daughter, that ill-designing woman ” (striyarir
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
yad durhanadyuvam... . duhitaraii dival),’ who is described as
“flowing away”’ (sarat) from her ruined chariot; viz. that chariot
that she, “the Daughter of Heaven, and Mistress of the Universe,
yokes afar (parakat, i. e. ab intra) and straightway visits the Five
Homes, to look upon the restless ways of the Kindreds”’ (VII, 75, 4):
Similarly, in X, 138, 5, Usas is afraid of Indra’s bolt, and goes her
way (akramat), abandoning her lovely chariot, cf. II, 15, 6. Agni
is commonly called “ ravisher” or “spoiler” of Dawn (uso na
jarah) ; this has usually been rendered as “lover of Dawn”, but
jara, from jr “to inveterate”, even when it means “lover”, has
always a somewhat sinister significance, and in the passages referred
to, Yaska’s and Sayana’s equations of jdra with jarayitr are certainly
correct, in this sense, that with the rising of the Sun, the Dawns
are always thought of as retiring and departing, to join the former
Dawns, e. g. in I, 113, 10. In VII, 6, 5, Agni, “driving off the
Nights (nirudhya nahusah), makes the Dawns to be consorts of the
Arya” (aryapatnir usasas cakara; Sayana equates arya with siirya).”
In I, 123, 1, Daksina, synonymous with Usas in the same hymn,
“rises from the dark night as herself an Arya” (krsndd ud asthat
arya), where it is, of course, to be understood that she had been
anarya; it may be noted that Daksina is Indra’s mother by Yajna
in Taittiriya Samhita, VI, 1, 3, 6, and that Daksina is Vac, whose
asura origin is notorious.
Dawn precedes the actual day, and must not delay, lest the Sun
scorch her like a thief or enemy (V, 79, 9). It is not until the
thirty parts of the whole twenty-four hours have elapsed that she
becomes again an auspicious power, meanwhile as in VI, 59, 6, b,
“moving headless, with babbling tongue, she descends thirty grades ”
(hitvi Siro jihvya vavadac carat trinisat pada ny akramit; hitvi siro
combined with 7b., a, apad, cited below, giving us the analogy to Agni,
apad asirso guhamano anté in IV, 1, 11); and similarly in I, 123, 8,
where the sisters are said to “traverse thirty leagues (trimsSataiir
yojanani), alternately ’—to reappear in due course, paritakmyayam,
for the ‘ancient Dawn is born again and again (punah punar jaya-
mana purani) decking herself with the selfsame hue” (samdanai
varnam” abhi Sumbhamana, I, 92, 10). Meanwhile the Sun, through-
out the thirty stations of her decline, rules supreme (triiisad dhama
vi rajati, X, 189, 3).
What is then the status of the Dawn ab intra, in the Night, as Night,
and especially at the end of the Night’s course (paritakmyaydam), as
in V, 30, 14, where “ Night at the end of her course shines-forth-as-
Dawn (aucchat) at the coming of the Debt-collector * king of the Glit-
ING. = THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY of
tering-folk ”’, and in VII, 69, 4, where “at the end of her wandering,
the Daughter of the Sun chooses his glory (sriyam) ”? The proces-
sion of Usas is in fact described in terms exactly parallel to those
of I, 24, 8 cited above with respect to the procession of the Sun: in
I, 152, 3, “ The footless-maid proceeds as first of footed things ”
(apad eti prathama padvatinam), and this is nearly identical with
VI, 59, 6 “ This footless-maid came earliest forth to footed things ”
(apdd ivan purva a agat padvatibhyah, apad in both passages repre-
senting apadi). That is as much as to say that she, who had been a
“serpent ’’, now assumes an angelic-human form. The same is im-
plied when it is said that ‘“‘ Our Lady puts off her dark robe” (apa
krsnan nirnijan devi avarityavah, 1, 113, 14, cf. VITI, 41, 10, where
it is Varuna that ‘“‘ makes the black robes white ”, Svetan adhi nirnijas
cakre krsnan); for this is the same as putting off desuetude and
impotence (I, 140, 8 jaram pra muican, Pancaviiisa Brahmanan,
XXV, 17, 3 jaram apahat, etc.), it is really the snake-skin, the
old skin, jirndén tacam as in Paiicaviiisa Brahmana, XXV, 15,
that is taken off. It is similarly that Urvasi and her sisters, in
X, 95, 8-9, “ evade Puriruvas like snakes” (tarasanti na bhujyul),
but when they yield “ display themselves as swans” (dtayo na tanval
Sumbhata), or “ with swan-skins”’, for tanu is often tantamount to
esloha gee
In I, 185, where Day and Night (ahani) are if not absolutely
identified with, at least very closely assimilated to Heaven and Earth
(dyavaprthivi, or rodasi), it is said, in the second verse, that “ The
twain (unspecified), though not proceeding (acaranti) and footless
(apadi), yet support a mighty Germ (garbha=Agni) that proceeds
and hath feet’ (carantam padvantam). This is closely related to X,
22, 14, ‘‘ Thou smotest Susna to the right for sake of Universal-Life
(visvayave, i. e. for Agni), that Earth (ksah) that had neither hands
nor feet (ahasta yad apadi, ci. III, 30, 8, cited above) might wax ”’
(vardhata), and III, 55, 14 where “As having feet (padya) she
standeth up erect (a#rddhva tasthau), adorned with many beauties ”’.
We can now compare all of the foregoing matter with a part of the
account of the marriage of Surya in X, 85, 28-30. Here, immediately
before her actual wedding, Sirya is called Krtya,* and it is only
when this krtyd nature that is like a clinging garment (dsakti) is
put off that she comes to her husband: “ Krtya that clingeth close is
taken off (vyajydte) . .. . this Krtya hath come to be with feet and
consorts with her husband as a bride” (krtya esa padvati bhiitva
jaya visate patim).” The text goes on to describe the inauspicious
aspect of the Sun himself when united with this same Krtya, ab intra:
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
“Inglorious (asrir@) becomes his form when it glitters in (rusati)
this evil (papaya amuyad, as in X, 135, 2 with reference to the evil way
of Yama), what time the husband wraps his body in the garment
of his wife’, which is, of course, the “robe of Night” of I, 115, 4.
Analogous to this is the allusion in I, 105, 2, where it is a part of
Trita’s * complaint that “the wife holds fast her husband” (a jaya
yuvate patim) ; it is in fact only ‘‘ when the parents that cohabit in
the dark are separated that they pass over the Babe” (krsnaprutau
vevije asya saksitau ubha tarete abhi matara sisum, I, 140, 3); “In
the Angel’s mansion were the First, from their diremption rose the
others” (krntatrad esam uparad udayan, X, 27, 23) ; it is when the
sacrificer makes his Soma offering that mighty Father Heaven breaks
from the embrace, I, 71, 6; and this separation of Heaven and Earth,
effected by the sacrifice, is the essential act of creation, RV. passim
(e. g., VII, 80, 1) for thereby there is made that “ space’, antariksa,
in which the desirous principles are destined to find a home and
prolong their line, as in a promised land.
If the husband is inglorious when he wears the woman’s robe, that
is in fact a snake-skin, she herself becomes glorious when she puts
off the dark robe (I, 113, 4 cited above), and shines forth radiant in
robes of light (Sukravasah, I, 113, 7), when as in I, 92, 11 “ She
wakes, uncovers Heaven’s ends “ and drives her sister far away... .
shines out in the bright-eye of her seducer ” (jarasya caksasa vi bhatt,
cf. X, 189, 2, antas carati vocanasya), That is indeed her marriage
when she becomes a woman clothed with the Sun, when as in VII,
81, 2, “ The rising Sun, refulgent Star, pours out his beams in com-
pany with hers; and then, O Dawn, may we partake together of thy
shining and the Sun’s; and her death, for when he suspires then she
expires” (asya prandd apdnati, X, 189, 2, called the hymn of the
“ Serpent Queen ”’, Sarpavajni).
Another version of the Dawn’s procession can be recognized in the
story of Apala, whose name means “ unprotected ”’, i. e., husbandless
and free woman. In VIII, 91, where Indra represents the Sun and is
described in terms appropriate to the Sun, the maiden (kanya),
who is at enmity with her (former) husband (patidvisah) ™ reflects,
‘““ What if we go and wed with Indra?” ® She gives him Soma, that is,
virtually performs a sacrifice to him, and asks him to raise up hair
upon her father’s (bald) head, his field, and upon her own body, “ here
below the waist”, that is, to restore the fertility of the universe”;
the reference to her own body indicating her extreme youth. Indra
draws her through the three apertures (kha) * of his (solar) chariot,
and so cleansing (pitvi) her makes for her a “ sunny skin” (sirya-
NO. I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY 9
itvacam). According to the quite intelligible legend cited by Sayana,
Apala, daughter of Atri, had in fact suffered from a skin-disease, and
the three skins that Indra removed from her became reptiles. In the
Jaiminiya Brahmana version (1, 220) we are told that Apala desired
to be rid of her “ evil colour” (papa varnam.) ; with the two first
cleansings she becomes successively a lizard (godha) and a chameleon
(krkalasa), with the third cleansing she becomes saiiisvistika (evi-
dently ‘ whitened ”’; the Satapatha Brahmana version has sazirslistika,
apparently “fit to be fondled”) and her form is called the ‘“ most
beautiful of all forms’. In the nearly identical version of Pancavimsa
Brahmana, 1X, 2, 14, the woman’s name is Aktupara (in literal sig-
nificance identical with “Aditi’’, “ In-finite’’), she is an Angirasi
(thus of Agni’s kin), and it is expressly stated that her “ skin was
like a lizard’s”’ (godhd@), that is reptilian and scaly. In X, 85, 34,
Surya’s cast off garment (samulyam, to be connected rather with
samala, “ foul’, than any word implying ‘ woollen”) is significantly
described as “ rasping, coarse, prickly, poisonous, and inedible’; the
curious expression “inedible” (na... . attave) corresponding to
Atharva Veda, 1, 11, 4, where the chorion or after-birth (jarayu, a
term applied to the slough of a snake in 7b. I. 27, 1) is said to be “ for
the dog to eat”’ (Sune ... . attave). In any case, it is clear that
the old skins are removed, and a glorious skin revealed, making Apala
fit to be Indra’s bride,” i. e., Siirya to be the Sun’s. With sirya-
tvacam above cf. Atharva Veda, II, 2, 1, where the Gandharva Vis-
wavasu (= Vera, the Sun, 70. Il, t) is himself “sun-skinned”~ .. . .
(stirya-tvak) ; in Pancaviisa Brahmana, XXIII, 16, 5, where the
sacrificers “make a skin for themselves” (tvacam eva kurute) a
“sun-skin” is to be understood; like that of those who are sun-
skinned ” in Vadjasaneyi Samhita, X, 4.*
We have long suspected that Apala becomes in the Buddha legend
Sujata, who in the Jataka (1, 69) is the daughter of a farmer, de-
sires a husband, and brings an offering of milk to the Bodhisattva,
seated beneath the Bodhi tree, on the eve of the Great Awakening.
Sujata, in fact, becomes the consort of Indra. The fullest account
occurs in Jataka No. 31, text I, p. 205. Here Sujata is the fourth
of Indra’s handmaidens (pddaparicadrika) ; three having died are re-
born in the same status, according to their virtue, but Sujata, “ be-
cause she had performed no deed of virtue” (kusalakamassa akatattd,
cf. “ akrtya” discussed in Note 13) is reborn as a crane. Indra seeks
her, finds, and instructs her, and proves by a trial that she has ex-
perienced a change of heart. She is next reborn in a potter’s family ;
Indra seeks her out, and makes her a gift in acknowledgment of
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
her virtue. She is reborn a third time as the daughter of the Asura
Vepacittiya (it will not be overlooked that the three births correspond
to the three cleansings of Apala),* and because of her virtue is
very beautiful (abhiripa) ; her father (who corresponds to Tvastr
in the Sarya versions) arrays her for marriage, and summons an
assembly of Asuras so that she may choose a husband for herself.
Indra assumes the “Asura colour, or appearance” (asuravannam=
asurya-varnam, and this corresponds to X, 85, 30 quoted above) and
takes his place in the assembly (really a svayaiivara) where Sujata
chooses him to be her husband, and he makes her his chief queen.
Indra in this story represents a previous incarnation of the Buddha.
In the last incarnation where the Bodhisattva is no longer identified
with Indra (in the sense of the Vedic dual Indragni) the require-
ment of the narrative makes it impossible for Sujata to become
the Buddha’s wife, and she remains Indra’s, though we may suspect
that the Bodhisattva’s actual wife Yasodhara is really the alter ego
of Sujata.
Given the other parallels, it is worth noting that Usas is more than
once in RV. addressed as ‘‘ well-born’’, or if we treat this as a name,
aSerhoutata., (lo 12s), Busou ger a yes sujate; VII, 77, 6, divo
duhitar ... . usah sujate); this merely confirmatory evidence was
remarked only after the identification had already been in mind. for
some years. Conversely, the designation of Usas as Maghoni in VII,
75, 5, is already suggestive of Maghavan, i. e. Indra. We are also
inclined to identify the kanya and sujata of our texts with the sukanya,
daughter of Saryata, who becomes the wife of Cyavana in Satapatha
Brahmana, lV, 1, 5; but as this involves a discussion of the identity of
Cyavana, Atri, and others, the possibility must remain to be taken
up on another occasion. It may, however, be pointed out that just as
the Sun is inglorious when he wears the guise of Krtya, so in Sa-
tapatha Brahmana, 1V, 1, 5, 1, the inveterated (jirnah) Cyavana is
“of Krtya’s aspect ” (krtyd-riipah ) ; that jahe, “ he was left behind ”,
corresponds to X, 53, 8, “ leave we there the impotent ” (atra jahama
. aSevah) and X, 124, 4, “ I leave behind the Father ” (pitararir
jahanu) ; and that the name Cyavana or Cyavana, “ fallen away ”, cor-
responds to X, 124, 4 where “Agni, Varuna, and Soma fall away ”’
(cyavante). Cf. too the “ five-fold offering’? made by Sunrta to
Brahmanaspati “ in RV. I, 40, 3.
Atharva Veda 1, 27 offers unmistakably a condensed account of
Indrani’s procession and marriage. Verse 1 opens, “On yonder shore
(amih pare) are thrice seven adders (prdakvah) that have cast their
skins “(mrjarayavah).“ All that the cast skins are good for is to
‘
NO. I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY iat
blindfold the vicious beings that beset the paths, the highwaymen
( paripanthinah ) who are inimical to the proceeding principles. Verses
2 and 32 are apotropaic in the same sense. Verse 4 continues in a
language which is now readily comprehensible, “ Let the two feet go
forward, let them visibly proceed; bear (her) to the homes of Prna
(vahatam prnatah grhan); let Indrani go forth foremost, uncon-
quered, unrobbed, to the East”. Here vahataii grhan is a quite tech-
nical expression implying “lead home the bride”. Prna is a designa-
tion either of the Sun, cf. Satapatha Brahmana, VIII, 7, 2, 1 where
the “ world-filling’”’ (lokaii-prna) brick represents the Sun, who
“ fills the worlds ” (lokam pirayati) ; or of Indra as the Sun, cf. RV.
IV, 19, 7, where Indra “ fills the waste-lands ”, aprnak dhanvani; or
of Agni who “ fills the regions ” (a@ rajasi aprnat, III, 2, 7, prnaksi
rodasi ubhe, X, 140, 2, and passim).
In any case, the evidence assembled above suffices to show that the
procession of the “ Serpents ” on the male side, who “ creep further ”
(ati sarpante) and become Adityas, as related in the Pafcaviinsa
Brahmana, XXV, 15, ample support for which can be cited from the
Rg Veda, is paralleled on the female side. Apart from their ontologi-
cal interest, the general conclusion provides a sound basis for the
interpretation of many peculiarities of the later Indian iconography.”
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
NOTES
1. The Angels (devah) in RV., although from one point of view, that is to
say throughout the duration of their aeviternity (amrtattva), incorruptible
(ajara, ajurya, amrta, amartya), are subject nevertheless to inveteration at
the end, and resurrection at the beginning, of every aeon (yuga) ; for example,
Agni, the very principle of life (a@yus, visvayus, RV. passim) “ Being inveter-
ated, is forthwith born youthful” (jrujurvan yo muhur @ yuva bhit, Il, 4, 5),
and with respect to the aeviternity of his manifestation is also said to be “of
unaging youth” (yuvd ajarah, V, 44, 3), and called “ Life-universal, deathless
amongst them that die” (visvayur yo amrto martesu, VI, 4, 2). Similarly in
X, 124, 4 “ Agni, Varuna, and Soma decline” (cyavante), in IV, 19, 2 the in-
veterated deities are re-emanated (avdsrjanta jivrayo na devah), and in V, 74, 5,
“From him that hath declined (cyavanadt) ye (ASvins) loosed the covering
cloak, when ye made him young (yuwvd) again, and stirred the bride’s desire”.
2. All references unspecified are to the Rg Veda Samhita.
3. For the significance of the vestigium pedi in Vedic, Zen, and Christian
tradition see my Elements of Buddhist iconography, 1935, p. 16 and Note 146.
4. These two forms of his are the same as the two forms (dve riipe) of
3rahman, “immortal, imageless’’ (amrta, amirta) and “ mortal, in a likeness”
(martya, mirta) of Brhadaranyaka Up., Ul, 3, 1, ef. Maitri Up., VI, 3, 15,
and 22. The immortal form is that of Varuna, Death, the para- and mnirguna-
Brahman: the mortal that Martanda (= Vivasvan, Sirya) whom “Aditi bore
hitherward unto repeated birth and death”, RV., X, 72, 9; Purtiravas “ when in
altered aspect I kept with mortals”, X, 95, 16; Purusa, whom the Angels
sacrificed, X, 9; Agni as the sacrifice, X, 88, 9; Brhaspati as the sacrifice,
Yama “who gave up his own dear body”, X, 13, 4; Yama, “the sole mortal”,
X, 10, 3; Vasistha of the “only birth”, VII, 33, 10; the “only son” (ekam
putram) of Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman, VIII, 1o1, 6; the apara- and
saguna- Brahman of the Upanisads. “ Mitra is the Day and Varuna the Night”,
Pancavimsa Brahmana, XXV, 10, 10.
5. The Vedic hymns to Dawn are primarily concerned with her first appear-
ance at the beginning of the aeon, and analogically with her constant reappear-
ance, cf. I, 123, 9, where Dawn, coming forth day after day, “hath knowledge
of the first day’s name”. In the same way the “ Days” are primarily periods of
supernal time, and only analogically human days, cf. I, 164, 51 “‘ Day after Day
the Waters rise and fall”, and II, 30, 1, “ Day after Day the sparkling of the
Waters moves’. Another version of the hesitation before the battle occurs in the
Kulavaka Jataka, No. 31, Jataka, text I, pp. 202-203, where Indra (Sakra)
corresponds to Arjuna and Matali to Krsna; Indra’s words “ Let me not for
the sake of empire (issaram = aisvaryam) destroy life, rather would I for their
sake sacrifice my own life to the Asuras”’, very closely parallel those of Arjuna
in the Bhagavad Gita, I, 33-35, though the detail of the motivation is brought
out in a slightly different manner.
6. The concatenation of krsna and arjuna here is by no means fortuitous,
but corresponds to that of Krsna and Arjuna in the Mahabharata, where the
Great Fight is nothing else but the Vedic conflict of Devas and Asuras. Krsna,
whose name is significant of his descent, comes over from the other side to aid
NO. I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAW N—COOMARASWAMY 13
the Aryan Pandavas, just as does Vibhisana in the Ramayana, and Usanas
Kavya, who is the priest of the Asuras but is won over to the side of the Devas,
in Panicavimsa Brahmana, VII, 5, 20 Bandh. Sr. S., XVIII, 46, and Jaiminiya
Brahmana, I, 125-126; cf. ViSvariipa, Vrtra’s brother, called “priest of the
Devas” in Taittiriya Samhita, I, 5, 1 and Indra’s guru in Bhagavata Purana,
VI, 7-13. It is because of the intimate relationships of the Devas and Asuras
that Arjuna, in Bhagavad Gita, I, 28 ff., shrinks from the slaughter of “ kinsmen
and teachers’; cf. Satapatha Brahmana, IV, 1, 4, 8, where Mitra (= “ Arjuna”)
dislikes to take part in the slaying of Soma, while in the same way Taittiriya
Brahmana, I, 7, 1, 7-8, where Namuci reproaches Indra as the “betrayer of a
friend” (mitra-dhruk), and Paiicavinisa Brahmana, XII, 6, where Namuci
reviles him as “ guilty hero-slayer of the guiltless” (virahann adruho druha),
provide a literal prototype for Bhagavad Gita, I, 38, where Arjuna shrinks from
the “sin of the betrayal of a friend” (dosam mitra-droheh). Arjuna, in fact,
shrinks from taking upon himself what in RV. are Indra’s typical kilbisani.
It is also very significant, though the implications are too many to be followed
up here, that of the two original brothers of the lunar stock, Dhrtarastra is
blind, while Pandu means the “son of a eunuch”, the former corresponding to
the form of deity ab intra, the latter to his generated aspect ab extra, as son
of him that had been impotent ab intra; “blindness” and “impotence” being
typical of the interior operation (guhya vrata) in RV. passim, as may be seen
by an analysis of those verses in which are found the words andha, and vadhri
or stari (it may be noted in this connection also that froma, “halt”, generally
coupled with andha, “blind” in the texts alluded to, corresponds to apdad,
“footless ”, as cited in the present article). Can we not indeed identify Pandu
with the “golden-handed son” (the Sun) whom the Asvins gave to her
“whose consort was unmanned” (I, 117, 24)? The victory of the Pandavas
corresponds to RV., X, 124, 4, where Agni, Varuna, and Soma decline (cya-
vante) and the “kingdom is reversed” (pary dvart rastram). The Epic
naturally concludes with the final return of the Pandavas to Heaven, their
disappearance ab intra, accompanied by Draupadi, whose alter nomen “ Krsna”
confesses her Asura origin, and who as the wife of the five Pandava brothers
may be compared to Usas or Surya, successively the wife of Soma, Gandharva,
Agni, and a “mortal” (sc. Vivasvan, Puriiravas, Yama), X, 85, 40, and
elsewhere also referred to as the consort of the Asvins; or may be compared
with Vac, as participated in by the Five Kindreds (parca jana). The corre-
spondences outlined above could be followed up in great detail.
7. For some of these equivalents see Bloomfield in Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc.,
XV, 172, ff. It should be added that the whole concept of the two wives and two
mothers survives in the nativities of Buddha, Mahavira, and Krsna. Apart from
the more obvious parallels, it will be remarked that Mayadevi, the Buddha’s
mother who does not survive, derives by her name itself from the Asura side,
while the co-wife Pajapati, called in the Buddhacarita, II, 19, her samaprabhava,
tantamount to savarnd, lives; and that Devaki, the mother of Krsna, is the sister
of the Asura Kathsa, in whose realm both parents are imprisoned, while the
child is taken over water (the Yamuna, although in flood, becoming fordable
for him, like the Sarasvati in RV. passim) to the human-angelic world where
he is fostered by another mother. In the case of Mahavira, the circumstances
of whose nativity are so exactly paralleled in RV., I, 113, 2 and I, 124, 8
cited above, the choice of the Ksatriya womb (and similarly in Buddhism, the
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
opposition of Ksatriya to Brahman) by no means necessarily reflects a con-
temporary social conflict of values, but can be better understood in the light
of the whole Vedic concept of the contrasted relations and functions of the
spiritual (brahma) and temporal (ksatra) powers, the former being primarily
those of Varuna= Brahman, the latter those of Indragni. Nor need we be
confused by the fact that when the relation of Agni to Indra is considered
per se, and ab extra, this is again that of the spiritual to the temporal power :
for just as Agni delegates the temporal power to Indra (VIII, 100, 1-2, X,
2, 5 and 124, 4, etc., cf. Satapatha Brahmana V, 4, 4, 15) though sometimes
playing an active part, so the Buddha (who for the most part corresponds to
Agni, “Gautama Buddha” for example reflecting Agni usar-budh) declines the
temporal power and as an actual teacher plays the Brahman part, although in
the conflicts with Mara (= Mrtyu= Vrtra, etc.) and the “Ahi-naga” (sic
in Mahavagga, I, 15, 7) of the Jatila shrine, he takes that part which is played
more often by Indra than by Agni or Brhaspati in person.
8. “ Sinister” also in a literal sense: for the act of creation and procession
is an extroversion, as appears in innumerable texts, e. g. X, 124, 4 “the kingdom
was reversed” (pary dvart rastram), IV, 1, 2 “O Agni, turn thy brother
Varuna round about” (bhratarait varunam agne & vavrtsva), cf. Aitareya
Brahmana, IV, 5 where, the Angels and Titans being of equal heroism, “ there
was a delay in turning back” (na vyavartanta) the latter; and this extroversion
is a right hand or sunwise turn, as in III, 19, 2=IV, 6, 3, “ Agni, choosing
rightwise the angelic office” (pradaksinit devatatim uranah), or X, 22, 14,
“Thou (Indra) smotest Susna to the right (pradaksinit) for Vi$vayu” (i. e.
Agni). Cf. Satapalha Brahmana, III, 2, 1, 13 and VII, 5, 1, 37.
Remembering that Night and Dawn are the two wives of Indra (Vajasaneyi
Samhita, III, 10, cited above) it is obvious that RV. X, 145—in application a
spell directed against a co-wife (sapatnibadhanam)—is by first intention an
imprecation launched by Indrani herself, to whom the hymn is attributed, against
her rival sister Night; while X, 129, attributed to Saci Paulomi (Indrani) is
her song of triumph (cf. X, 125, attributed to Vac). Atharva Veda I, 14, is
apotropaic in the same sense as RV. X, 145.
The application of these hymns illustrates very well the basic principle of
magical incantation; the recital of what was done in the beginning is held to be
effective in particular application here and now. In the same way, for example,
RV. V, 78, the immediate reference of which is to Agni’s or the Sun’s nativity,
is employed as a birth rune. The application is by analogy, and takes for
granted the correspondence of macrocosm and microcosm.
9. Night and Day (usasdnakta) are both favorably regarded ‘“ Daughters
of Heaven” in X, 70, 6, but this is as being seated together at the altar
(yonau), that is analogically ab intra, for yoni as altar corresponds to “ navel ”
(nabhi) “where Aditi confirms our kinship” (jamitva) X, 64, 13, and it is at
the “navel of Order” (rtasya na@bhau) that “I throughly purify” (sari
pundmi, X, 13, 3).
10. The word nahusah contrasts with usasah, both fem. pl. acc. Nahusa (m.),
from a root nah implying “ bondage”, is a designation of Agni’s father in I, 31,
11 and V, 12, 6; in fem. pl. it may therefore appropriately designate at the
same time “nights”, (as rendered also by Fay in Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc.,
XXVII, p. 411, q. v.) and the recessive “false dawns” that have been Agni’s
“first mothers” in his successive manifestations, but are set back yielding
NO. I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY 15
‘
place to the true dawns that are the Suns’ brides and Agni’s “second mothers”.
It is further noteworthy that in some later texts Nahusa is or becomes a
serpent. In literal significance and as an essential rather than personal name,
nahusa may be compared to varuna and vrtra, as derivates of ur.
11. The samanani varnam daily put on is of course the G@ryan varnam of
III, 34, 9 as distinguished from the asuryariu varnam of IX, 71, 2 (= papam
varnam in Jaiminiya Brahmana, I, 220, with reference to Apala) ; and being
in fact the “ cast(e)” of the Sun, the Dawns are described virtually as becoming
every morning savarnd in Bloomfield’s second sense of “like (Vivasvant) in
character or class” (Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc., XVI, p. 178).
12. Rnajicaya, lit. “debt-collector”: either Brhaspati-Brahmanaspati, as in
II, 23, 11 and 17 (rnaya, rnacid rnaya), or Indra himself (rnacid....
rnaya, IV, 23, 7), the toll being exacted in either case from the fiend (druh).
Monier-Williams, for rnafcaya, has nothing better to offer than “name of a
man”, and it is in this fashion that essential names have generally been
treated by translators of the Vedas. How many needless obscurities and
complications have been introduced into Vedic studies by a persistent neglect
of the warning “Even as He seemeth, so is He called” (V, 44, 6) it would
be hard to tell. Katha Up., IV, 14 can be pertinently cited: ‘He who sees
the principles separately, pursues them separately ”.
13: Heaven and Earth, as parents of Agni, “ The son within his parents’
lap, as being the Eternal Germ” (garbham .... mityanv na sunum pitror
upasthe, ib.). This nityam, incidentally, recurs in Katha Up., V, 13, “ Eternal
mid the transient” (nityo’ mtyadnam).
14. Krtya as feminine personification of krtya, “that to be done”, is per-
spicuous in the present context; where that which should be, but is not yet
done, and merely in potentia, is as such evil. The putting off of krtya is
procedure from potentiality to act, nonbeing to being, privation to abundance,
death to life. For the conception, typical also in Christian Scholastic philosophy,
there may be compared in connection with Indra’s procession “ Many a thing
not yet done I have to do” (bahiini me akrta kartvani, IV, 18, 2, cf. “ Wot ye
not that I must be about my Father’s business? ”, Luke II, 49); in connection
with Usas, “ Delay not to go about thy labour” (mda ciram tanutha apah, V,
79, 9); again in connection with Indra, “ Do what thou hast to do” (karisya
krnuhi, I, 165, 9), who indeed “does what must be done” (cakrih yat karisyan,
VII, 20, 1), i. e. in Christian formulation “ Those things which God must will
of necessity ” (St. Thomas, Sum. Theol., I, q. 45, a. 2c), who is also described
as being “ wholly in act”. The principle involved underlies Brhadaranyaka Up.,
Ill, 2, 13, “What they praised was Action (karma)”, and the doctrine re-
garding karma yoga in the Bhagavad Gita. Cf. also kusalamassa akatatta
(= kuSalasya akartatvat) in Jataka, text, I, 205; akarya as “sin” in Mrccha-
katika, VIII, 22, 4; and akaranasamivaram as ‘‘sins of omission” in Sadha-
namala No. 98 (Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, XXVI, p. 201).
The following verse is apotropaic with respect to the “consumptions ”
(yaksma) which may be transmitted from the bride’s stock (yanti janat anu),
and which the Angels are besought to return to the place of their origin.
Vaksma is, of course, a disease always thought of as proceeding from Varuna
in his unfriendly aspect. Following words derived from RV., X, 17, I re-
ferring to Tvastr’s gift of his daughter Sarya in marriage, the Atharva Veda,
IIJ, 31, 5 similarly expresses the wish “ May I be separated from evil
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
(papmand) and consumption (yaksmend) and united to life (adyusa)”, cf.
RV. VII, 59, 2 ‘“ Release us from the bonds of death, not those of life”
(bandhanat mrtyor muksiya na amrtat), that is in effect also “ May we pass
over from Varuna, from Death, to Agni Vaisvanara, to Life”.
16. I. e. Agni, ab intra, and eager (icchan, ete.) to proceed.
17. Converse of guhamano anta in IV, 1, 11. The “ends” are either as here
the halting places of the Sun, or as in Jaiminiya Up. Brahmana, 1, 35, Winter
and Spring, the two ends of the Year; or, indeed, any pair of contrasted and
limiting concepts which are united ab intra and divided ab extra. The dis-
tinction of the limits is temporal and spatial; their indistinction eternal.
18. The husband (pati) with whom she is at variance is no doubt the
Gandharva, the jealous protector of unwedded maidens, cf. X, 85, 21-22, “ Rise
up from hence, ViSvavasu; this maiden hath a husband .... Seek in her
father’s home another willing maid”. Compare also X, 95, 2, where Urvasi
(who corresponds to Usas, Strya, and Apala, as does Purtiravas to Strya
and Indra) deserting Purtiravas says “like the first of Dawns I leave thee”.
From the Brahmana and other versions of the legend (knowledge of which is
taken for granted in X, 95) we know that Urvasi is in fact taken back into the
Gandharva world (the “Assumption of the Virgin”), and that it is only when
the sacrifices of the Year have been completed that Purtiravas himself recovers
his Gandharva status and is reunited to his immortal bride. Purtiravas is
“mortal”, not as man is mortal by contrast with the devas, but as the devas
are mortal when contrasted with the aswras, as Mitra is mortal by contrast
with Varuna (I, 164, 38 and X, 85, 17-18); he is the ‘dying god”, the Year,
the father of “ Life” (dyus).
19. Apala’s uninhibited procedure corresponds to the shamelessness of Dawn,
RV. passim, where she is referred to as like a dancer, as unbaring her bosom,
or unveiling her charms (I, 92, 4; I, 124, 3-4; VI, 64, 2), or described as
rising as if from a bath (V, 80, 5-6; Apala’s meeting with Indra also taking
place beside the river, where, as Sayana takes it, she has gone to take her
morning bath). Urvasi and her sister apsarases are similarly described in X,
95, 9. Cf. RV., VII, 80, 2 speaking of Dawn, “ Youthful and shameless she
goeth forward, having come to know of Sun, and sacrifice, and Agni”, and
also Jaiminiya Up. Brahmana, I, 56, “In the beginning, the woman went
about in the flood, desirously seeking a husband (stri ... . sasitcaranti icchanti
salile patim, perhaps a reflection of RV. V, 37, 3, vadhur iyam patint icchanti,
“This woman desiring a husband”, whom Indra makes his chief queen). The
woman’s boldness, of which the memory survives in the later rhetorical allusions
to the inconstancy of Sri-Laksmi, is admirably illustrated in the early Indian
representations of apsarases, best perhaps in the Mathura Museum example, J 2.
20. Cf. Atharva Veda, III, 17, 5, ‘“‘ Tvastr made a marriage for his daughter,
and all this universe went forth” (idam visvam bhuvanam vi yati), where in
spite of Bloomfield, Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc., XVI, p. 183, I venture to
think that vi ydti is intransitive and has wisvam bhuvanam as subject. It is in
the same way that Urvasi “bestows upon her husband’s father wealth, when
her lover (usa/i, m.) woos her from the nearby home” (X, 95, 4), 1. e. from
the Gandharva world, from within, cf. the reference to the origin of Vac in
“another’s house”, RV. X, 109, 4.
21. Apala is drawn three times “through the opening of the chariot, the
opening of the wain, the opening of the team” (khe rathasya, khe anasah,
NO. I THE DARKER SIDE OF DAWN—COOMARASWAMY 7,
khe yugasya). In Jaiminiya Up. Brahmana, I, 3, the kha anasah and kha
rathasya are identified with the divas chidra or “ hole in heaven”, which is “all
covered over by rays”, and is the Sun through the midst of which the Com-
prehensor “utterly escapes” (atimucyate); cf. Chandogya Up., VIII, 6, 6,
where the Sun is called the “portal of the worlds” (Jokadvara) and RV. V,
81, 2 where it is the Sun that “lets out the forms of all things” (wisva
ripam prati muncate .... savitr). Obviously the way out and the way in are
the same (cf. John, X, 9); to be dragged forward through the hole of the
chariot is to be born into the worlds, to pass out through the hole is to die,
whether temporarily or finally. With the description of the axle-hole as all
covered over with rays”, cf. X, 132, 6, “Wash her (Aditi) with sun-rays ”
(stro ninikta rasmibhih ).
In all probability kha rathasya, kha anasah, kha yugasya are synonymous
expressions, all equivalent to kha as “hole in the wheel through which the
axle passes’, see my “ Kha and other words denoting ‘Zero’, in connection with
the metaphysics of space”, in Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, VII,
1934. But even if we hold with Sayana that three successively smaller openings
in different parts of the chariot are intended (which seems improbable), it by
no means follows that the three operations by which the “delivery” is made
are to be understood as taking place upon one and the same occasion; we
understand in any case that Indra drags Apala three times through the “hole
of his chariot”, in other words makes her to be born thrice, as in the story of
Sujata cited below; cf. khad-iva yoni-jatah in Buddha Carita, 1, 30.
Since writing the above I find in Jaiminiya Brahmana, II, 410, yatha ratha-
nabhau arah pratistha, “ when the spokes are affixed to the hub of the chariot ”’;
and inasmuch as “ hub of the chariot ” can only mean “ hub of the chariot wheel”,
so we may take it that “ aperture of the chariot”’, kha rathasya, means “ aperture
of the chariot wheel ’”’, as the sense requires.
There is an analogous ritual use of “ringstones”, which are regarded as
yonis or female symbols of generation (see Marshall, Mohenjo-Daro, p. 62,
and references there cited) ; those who are passed through such ringstones are,
as it were, “ born again”. That such stones are really symbolic representations
of the solar /oka-dvara through which one “escapes altogether” (atimucyate )
is clearly seen in the case of the well-known example at Satrufijaya, where the
opening in the stone is called the “door of liberation” (mukti-dvara).
For further references to the story of Apala see Oertel in Journ. Amer.
Oriental Soc., XVIII, 26f.
22. With all the purifications referred to above may be compared those
performed by the Saman and Rk antecedent to the consummation of their
veiled union on the night of the sabbath (upavasathiyam ratrim, sadast,
Jaiminiya Up. Brahmana, I. 54). In this case (in many respects analogous
to that of Yama and Yami, RV. X, 10, but with a “happy ending’’), that
which Rk removes and casts forward (pratyauhat) becomes the “vision of
living creatures” (dhir eva prajanam jivinadm eva), and the whole is once
more a story of creation.
23. Not an independent “ Person”, but an essential name of Agni, as ex-
plicitly recognized in I, 38. 13.
24. Amuh pare, i. e. “on the farther shore”, awaiting transportation over the
flowing river, like. for example, Bhujyu, samudra @ rajasah para inkhitam,
whom the ASvins bring across in their winged ships, X, 143, 5. The thrice
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
seven adders or addancs are no doubt the twenty-one rivers of X, 5, 5, 64, 8, and
75, 1, cf. X, 90, 4 where the young restless streams that Indra pours out
hitherward are as yet “footless and carless”, and IX, 77, 3 where the Soma
streams are referred to as “beautiful like snakes” (ahyo na caravo). If the
latter comparison seems strange in view of what has been said so far, it must
be remembered that the beauty of n@ginis becomes a cliché in later Indian
literature, and that at least a beauté de diable must be attributed to Night,
with whom the Sun is in love before her transformation takes place; just as in
folk-lore the human hero is in love with the mermaid before she acquires a
human form and soul. Nirjarayavah is literally “freed from the chorion”, the
commentators supplying “ with skin sloughed from the body, chorionwise” and
“as Devas, freed from the chorion”. Comparison may be made with RV. X,
106, 6 “Do ye (Aégvins) make my corrupted chorion to be incorruptible”
(jarayv ajaram mardyu); X, 123, I, where the Sun is new risen from the
chorion, or in a chorion of light (jyotir-jarayi) ; Atharva Veda, I, 12, 1 where
the Sun is jarayu-ja; Satapatha Brahmana, V1, 6, 1, 24, where Agni is due to
be born from the chorion (jardyuno jayamana) which is called “ putrid”, like
Sarya’s cast off garment in X, 85, 34, cf. AV. I, 11, 4; and especially Jaiminiya
Brahmana, I1, 438, where Sarama, “ splitting open the chorion of the Waters”
sets them free to flow. The word jarayu itself derives from jr “to be inveter-
ated’”’; such expressions as RV. I, 140, 8 jaram pra muncan, and Pancavimsa
Brahmana, XXV, 17, 3, jaram apahat, “ put off eld”, and such expressions as
jarayu-ja cited above, equally imply a birth and rejuvenation. In other words,
the young unwedded streams are newly born; Indra’s bride is one of them, or one
like them, just as Urvasi in X, 95, 6 is one of the “seven” Apsarases, in V, 42, 9,
“ Urvasi of the streams”. “ Unrobbed” (amugsitd) has reference to the powers
of darkness that lie in wait to steal away the “names” of those that proceed,
as in V, 44, 4, where Krivi ndmani vane pravane musayatt.
25. For example, in VIII, 17, 5, prdadku-sdnu is an epithet of Indra; the
words appear to mean “serpent-shouldered” (sanu, primarily “high plain”
or “table-land”, metaphorically the upper part of the back, as in RV. I, 32, 9).
There is an image answering to this description in the Mathura Museum (see
Vogel, Ars Asiatica, XV, Pl. XXXIX and p. 46). The female counterpart of
this image (ib. Pl. XL) has long been known as the “Serpent Queen”. And
Sarparajni, or “Serpent Queen” is a designation of Vac and of Earth in
Satapatha Brahmana, IV, 6, 9, 16-17. The two images are then rightly to be
called those of Indra and Indrani.
The Sarparajfii hymn is also called the Manasa Stotra or “mental laud”,
because its verses are “ recited mentally ” (manasa stuyante, Taittiriya Samhita,
VII, 3, 1, 4, cf. Satapatha Brahmana, II, 2, 1, 30); hence the name of the well-
known Bengali snake-goddess, Manasa Devi, who is at once Indrani and the
Earth, and of whom the Mathura “ Serpent Queen” may be regarded as one of
the earliest known representations.
The Serpent Queen must also be recognized in Sasarpari “the daughter of
the Sun” and “Lunar Maiden” (paksya; paksa, according to Sayana, is here
the Sun, the usual sense of “ Moon”, as in Buddha Carita, II, 20, seems to be
more acceptable, and would allude to Sasarpari’s dswrya origin), “who puts
forth the New Life” (navyam ayur dadhana), RV. III, 53, 15-16; where Ayus
is primarily Agni (see Bloomfield in Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc., XX, p. 181),
“the one and only Life” (ekdyus, I, 31, 5), and “ Universal Life” (wsvayus,
LOZ 5 MW 20;-23 V1.4; 2).
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 2
CONCERNING THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT,
AZTEC HERBAL, “CODEX BARBERINI,
LATIN 241” (VATICAN LIBRARY)
(With Four PLares)
BY
EMILY WALCOTT EMMART
The Johns Hopkins University
(PUBLICATION 3329)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MAY 18, 1935
AN
The Lord Battimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. & As
FOREWORD
The present pamphlet is published to make known the discovery
of the Badianus Manuscript in the Vatican Library and to give an
idea of the value and interest of this unique Aztec herbal. It is believed
to be the earliest herbal produced on this side of the Atlantic, and from
this consideration alone it deserves all the notice that it will un-
doubtedly receive. It is a matter of regret to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution that funds are not available to publish a facsimile of the full
manuscript with its 91 color sketches of plants. Such a publication,
in the usual edition issued by the Institution and with g1 color plates,
would involve a considerable sum, but the text with black and white
illustrations and a few color plates could be published for a com-
paratively moderate amount. If there are those who would be suf-
ficiently interested to contribute toward the publication of this valuable
manuscript as a whole or in such modified form, I should be glad to
have them communicate with the Institution.
Cy Ge Aeon;
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
CONCERNING THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT. AN AZTEC
Eh BAE CODEX BARBERINDMGATEN: 241”
OWATICAN EIBRARY)
By EMILY WALCOTT EMMART
The Johns Hopkins University
(WitH Four Pirates)
The Badianus manuscript is a sixteenth century Mexican Herbal
composed in the year 1552 in the famous College of Santa Cruz at
Tlaltelolco, Mexico City. This beautiful manuscript has long been in
the possession of the Vatican Library, where its real identity has been
obscured by the title ““ Codex Barberini, Latin 241”. Except for a
2
few scholars,” it was practically unknown until 5 years ago, when,
7 « i ’ b
*In a personal communication (Mar. 16, 1930) to Dr. C. U. Clark, Mrs. Zelia
Nuttall suggests that “ Codex Barberini, Latin 241” might be the “ small book”
sent by Munoz Camargo to King Philip. It contained a “demonstracién, pro
pinturas y colores de sus formas y hechuras y propriedades” of the flowers
esteemed by the Indians (Munoz Camargo, Historia de Tlazcala, edition issued
in Tlazcala, Imprento de Gobierno, 1870).
* Thorndyke, Lynn, Vatican Latin Manuscripts in the History of Science and
Medicine. Isis, vol. 13, 1929-30.
“This sixteenth century manuscript is a work on medicinal herbs of the
Indias which an Indian physician of the College of Holy Cross composed, taught
by no reasons, but by experience only, in the year 1552.
“There is a dedication by Martin de la Cruz to Francisco de Mendoza, and
the work closes with a letter of John Badianus, the Latin translator, to the
reader.
“Barberini 241, paper, 63 fols., Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis
quem quidam Indus Collegii Sanctae Crucis medicus composuit, nullis rationibus
doctus, sed solis experimentis edoctus Anne Domini Servatoris 1552.”
In a personal communication from Dr. C. U. Clark, the author is informed
that Dr. Gabrieli, of the Corsini Library in Rome, discovered a copy of the
Badianus manuscript, in Italian hand, in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle.
Gabrieli, G., Due codici iconografici di piante miniate nella Biblioteca Reale
di Windsor. A proposito di Cimeli Lincei. Rend. Acc. Lincei, ser. 6, vol. 10,
2 sem., fasc. 10, November 1920.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 2
az SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
through the generosity of Ambassador Charles G. Dawes, the Smith-
sonian Institution sent Dr. Charles U. Clark to Europe in search of
early Latin American texts. Through the courtesy of the Vatican
Library, Dr. Clark was able to obtain photographs of the original
manuscript, and it is from these that the present translation has been
made. The manuscript is a complete herbal consisting of 63 folios
approximately 6 by 84 inches in size, clearly written in Latin and
Aztec. It is divided into 13 chapters, each representing an attempt
to group maladies of either similar type or similar location of the
body. The first eight chapters follow the latter arrangement, begin-
ning with the head and continuing to the feet; in the last five chapters
an attempt has been made to group them according to subject matter.
The text is exquisitely illustrated with pictures of 204 herbs and
trees, and these illustrations still today retain their brilliancy of color.
Through the kindness of Dr. Charles G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian
Institution, the original water-color sketches for the colored plates,
made by Mrs. Missonnier, niece of Mgr. Eugene Tisserant, Pro-
Prefect, Vatican Library, have been obtained, and it is hoped that it
will be possible at a later time to publish the herbal in colored facsimile
with a translation.
The herbal is the work of two Aztecs who were educated at the
College of Santa Cruz. It was first written in Aztec and then, with
the exception of the names of the plants, stones, and animals, trans-
lated into Latin within the same year. The exact title reads as follows:
A book of Indian Medical Herbs composed by a certain Indian physician of
the College of Santa Cruz, who is not theoretically learned, but is taught only
by experience. In the year of our Lord Saviour 1552. [PIl. 1.]
There seems little doubt that the principal author of the manu-
script is one Martin de la Cruz, whose name appears in the first line
of the dedication ; the second author is Juannes Badianus, the trans-
lator, whose signature appears in the postscript at the end of the last
chapter. Both of these men were natives taught in the first college
erected for the Indians, the College of Santa Cruz.
The manuscript is fittingly dedicated to Don Francisco de Mendoza,
son of Don Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy to New Spain.
Although the dedication is addressed to Don Francisco de Mendoza,
it is none the less a tribute to the first viceroy. That it is not ad-
dressed directly to the viceroy may be explained by the fact that
Don Antonio de Mendoza had been transferred to Peru 2 years be-
fore. Since history records his death on July 21, 1552, the day before
NO. 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—EM MART 3
the completion of the translation, it is certain that he was not aware
of the well-deserved tribute which reads as follows:
For the most eminent Don Francisco de Mendoza, most excellent son of
Don Antonio de Mendoza, first viceroy of this India, his unworthy slave, Martin
de la Cruz, prays for the greatest health and prosperity.’
Since in you the graces and adornments of every excellence, and the accom-
plishments of the good, which are desired by everyone, shine forth O most
magnificent Master, I do not know, indeed, what quality of yours to praise
especially. Indeed, I do not see by what praises I may extol your remarkable
love, by what words I may express gratitude for your unsurpassable kindness.
For I cannot express in words how your father, a man at once most christian
and most devoted, has been above all others my benefactor, for whatever I am,
whatever I possess, and whatever renown I have, I owe to him. I can find
nothing equal to, nothing worthy of his benefits. I can give great thanks,
indeed, to my Maecenas, but little repayment. On that account, I offer, dedicate,
and consecrate myself, whatever I am, to be your property. Not in truth to him
alone, but also to you my most eminent master, as a most supplicant token and
testimony of my singular devotion.
The herbal was written at the request of Don Francisco de Mendoza
and was intended as a gift to “ His Holy Caesarian Royal Catholic
Majesty *—Charles V. It is evident that Don Francisco, who fol-
lowed in his famous father’s footsteps in fostering the protection and
education of the Indians, wished to commend the work of the Indians
and to enlist His Majesty’s support of the College of Santa Cruz.
The latter part of the dedication reads as follows:
Indeed I suspect that you demand this little book of herbs and medicaments
so strongly for no other reason than to commend us Indians, even though un-
worthy, to his Holy Caesarian Catholic Royal Majesty. Would that we Indians
could make a book worthy of the king’s sight, for this certainly is most un-
worthy to come before the sight of so much majesty. But you will recollect
that we poor unhappy Indians are inferior to all mortals, and for that reason
our poverty and weakness implanted in us by nature merit your indulgence. Now
accordingly, I beg that you will take this book, which by every-right I ought
to inscribe with your name, most magnificent Master, in the spirit in which it
is offered, or, what would not surprise me, that you cast it out whither it
deserves. Farewell. Tlatilulci. In the year of our Lord Saviour 1552.
Your Excellency’s most humble servant.
*In the space between this item and the following appears “ Exlibris didaci
Cortavila.’ The handwriting is entirely different from that of the manuscript,
sO we can surmise that the book was once in the possession of someone by the
name of Cortavila.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Whether this beautiful little manuscript ever came into the hands
of Charles V is not known, but Mendieta* records the fact that
His Majesty contributed to the support of the College:
His Majesty gave to the College of Santa Cruz, where they were taught Latin
a thousand pesos for each year for certain years. To those who taught in the
Chapel of Santa Jose to read, write and sing and play instruments of the
church, three hundred ducats was given for some years. To illuminate the Holy
Sacrament he commanded to give to each monastery six measures in each year,
one half measure for each month. For celebration of mass in the monastery he
commanded wine.
and in addition we read—
for the hospitals of St. Francis of Mexico and convent of Los Angeles 100
pesos per year. And in order that the sick Indians should not remain untreated,
he ordered to be built a royal hospital near Saint Francis of Mexico where
they were cared for.
Entirely apart from wishing to enlist His Majesty’s support of the
college which, after the early prosperous period, was always in need
of funds, Don Francisco undoubtedly had a keen interest in the herbs
and medical knowledge of New Spain. Verification of Don Francisco’s
personal interest in herbs is to be found in the quotation from the
Frampton translation of Monardes: *
Don Frauncis De Mendosa, Sonne unto the vise Roye, Don Antony de
Mendosa did sowe in the new Spaine Cloaves, Pepper, Ginger, and other spices,
of those whiche are brought from the Orientall Indias, and that whiche by hym
was begonne was loste, by reason of his death, onely the Ginger did remain, for it
did growe verie well in those partes, and so thei bryng it greene from newe
Spain and other partes of our Indias, and some they bring drie, after the maner
of that of the East India.
Besides the personal interest of Don Francisco in herbs and his
desire to foster the education of the Indians, a third and more force-
ful influence gave impetus to the writing of this herbal; namely, the
demand on the part of Europeans for herbs and medicaments.
The expansion of the West had been stimulated by a desire to find
a shorter trade route to the spice-producing countries of the Fast.
The tales and accounts of voyages of Columbus (1492-1502), Vespucci
(1499-1503), Balboa (1512-13) and Magellan (1519-22) and others
had already awakened Europeans to the value of spices and herbs from
*“Tcazbalceta, Joaquin Garcia, 1870.
Mendieta, Fray Gerénimo de Mendieta-Historia Eclesiastica Indiana. Publ.
Mexico, 1870. Antiqua Libreria, portal de Augustinos no. 3, 1870.
° Frampton, John, 1577—Joyfull Newes of the Newe Founde Worlde .. . . tr.
of Monardes, Nicholas, vol. 2, p. 5, Introduction by Stephen Gaselee, Constable
and Co., Ltd. London, 1925.
NO. 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—-EM MART 5
the New World. With the coming of Cortez and the fall of Tenoch-
itlan in 1521, news of the medical knowledge of the Aztecs drifted back
to Europe. In a letter to Charles V concerning the district of
Tlaltelolco, the marketplace of Tenochitlan, Cortez mentions espe-
cially a street of “ herb sellers where there are all manner of roots and
medicinal plants that are found in the land. There are houses as it
were of apothecaries where they sell medicines made from these herbs
both for drinking and for use as ointments and salves.” *
These letters, accounts of ship captains and explorers, even at this
early date carried news to Europe of a knowledge of the use of herbs
and medicaments which appeared: to rival that of the Old World.
This interest is reflected in accounts of later historians and travelers,
and in the works of some of the great European herbalists of the
sixteenth century.
Of the translator Juannes Badianus, we have brief but precise data
in the last two pages of the volume (pl. 2), where he adds a word of
explanation to the reader which is self explanatory :
JUANNES BADIANUS, THE TRANSLATOR, TO THE GENTLE READER
I beg again and again, most excellent reader, that you consider that I have well
employed the labor that went into the translation, such as it is, of this little book
of herbs. For my part, I preferred to have that labor go for nothing than to
undergo your most exacting judgment. Further be sure that I put so many
spare hours on this edition, not to show off my own talent, which is almost
nothing, but only because of the obedience which I very rightly owe to the
priest of this Monastery of St. Jacob, the apostle of the Spaniards and my most
excellent patron, and very much to his superior the reverend Franciscan father,
brother Jacobo de Grado, who laid this task upon my shoulders. Farewell in
Christ the Saviour. At Tlatilulci in College of the Holy Cross, on the feast
day of Saint Mary Magdalene during the Holy Holidays, A.D. 1552.
End of the Book of Herbs, which Juannes Badianus by nation an Indian of the
Xuchimilcanus country, reader of the same college, translated into Latin.
Glory be ever to him by whose gift I translated this Book which you per-
ceive, Good friend Reader.
Badianus was apparently a native Indian from the district of
Xochimilco, and he was undoubtedly among those first students who
attended the college after it opened in 1535. It is most fitting that
the translator was a native of the district of the floating gardens of
Xochimilco, which had long been the gardens of the Aztec kings and
princes. Centuries before the conquest the Aztecs had brought flowers
and herbs from the lowlands and had developed a truly botanical gar-
* Cortes, Hernando, Five letters, 1519-1526. Translated by F. Bayard Morris,
Robert M. McBride & Co., New York, 1929. Second letter, p. 87.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
den of plants from many districts in Mexico. The historian Juan de
Torquemada,’ who was for a time a member of the faculty of Santa
Cruz, tells us that “ Montezuma kept a garden of medicinal herbs
and that the court physicians experimented with them and attended
the nobility. But the common people came rarely to these doctors for
medical aid, not only because a fee was charged for their services,
but also because the medicinal value of herbs was common knowl-
edge and they could concoct remedies from their own gardens.”
These gardens were undoubtedly flourishing in good condition at the
time the manuscript was written, and even today they furnish all
the fowers and vegetables for Mexico City. It is quite within reason
that both Martinus de la Cruz and Juannes Badianus were familiar
with the flora of this district from early childhood.
Of “the Reverend Franciscan father, Brother Jacobo de Grado”,
no other historical reference has as yet been found—a most singular
fact since he held the position of superior at the convent at a time
when both the historians Fray Bernardino de Sahagun and Fray
Torquemada were in Mexico, the former Fray Bernardino de Sahagun
being a member of the Governing Board of the Order of Franciscans
at the time of the completion of this manuscript.
As to the origin of the famous College of Santa Cruz of Tlaltelolco
(Tlatilulci), both the modern writers Bourne* and Merriman” ac-
credit its founding to Bishop Zumarraga in the year 1535. Bourne
adds: “‘ Besides the elementary branches, instruction was offered in
Latin, philosophy, music, Mexican medicine, and the native languages.
Among the faculty were graduates of the University of Paris and
such eminent scholars as Bernardino de Sahagun, the founder of
American anthropology, and Juan de Torquemada, himself a product
of Mexican education, whose Monarquia Indiana is a great storehouse
of knowledge of Mexican antiquities and history. Many of the
graduates of this college became alcaldes and governors in the Indian
towns.”
*Torquemada, Juan de, Monarg. Ind., lib. 14, chap. 14: “El emperador
Moctezuma tenia jardines de yerbas medicinales, y mandaba a sus médicos que
hiciesen experiencias con ellas, y curasen a los senores de su corte. La gente
comun occurria rara vez a los medicos, por excusarse de pagarles, y porque era
general el conocimiento de varios remedios, con los cuales se curaban, como
podian, de sus enfermedades.”
“Bourne, E. G., The American Nation—a history, vol. 3, p. 300, Harper &
Brothers, New York, 1904.
* Merriman, R. B., The rise of the Spanish Empire, vol. 3, p. 663, Macmillan
Co., New York, 1925.
NO. 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—EM MART 7
If we return to the sixteenth century work of the historian Mendieta,
who went to Mexico 19 years after the founding of the college, a
more intimate picture may be obtained. Before the opening of the
College of Santa Cruz in 1536,” the Indians were taught in the con-
vent of S. Francisco of Mexico in the chapel of S. Jose. Here “ the
good father and guide Fr. Pedro de Gante” instructed them in
~ Christian doctrine and in allithe arts and exercises’: ~ Whe first
teacher in grammar was Fr. Arnaldo de Bassacio, a Frenchman and a
great linguist of Indian language, with whom they made such progress
that the first viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, true father of the Indians,
noting their progress gave the order that they should build a college
in the principal suburb of Mexico a quarter of a league from S. Fran-
cisco (where we, the lesser friars have a second convent of the name
of the apostle Santiago, in the suburb which is called Tlaltelolco). [ Pl.
4.] In order that the guardian of that convent should have in his
charge the administration of the college, and that this work should not
burden the brothers of the principal convent, the viceroy Don Antonio
himself built the college at his own expense and gave certain estates
and farms which he had, in order that the rent of them might sustain
the Indian college.”
The students at the tender age of 10 to 12 years were carefully
selected from the “sons of gentlemen” of the principal towns and
larger provinces of this New Spain. “ The priests of their native
town selected only those who appeared most able, and thus were
gathered together about a hundred children and young men.” The
ceremonies of the dedication of the college were impressive. Among
those present were the viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, Bishop of
Mexico, Don Fr. Juan Zumarraga, the Bishop of S. Domingo, D. Se-
bastin Ramirez and “ with them all the city”. The ceremonies began
with a sermon preached by Dr. Cervantes at the convent of S. Fran-
cisco of Mexico. Then a great procession marched to the Convent of
Santiago, where a second sermon was preached by Fr. Alonso de
Herrera and a third and last by Fr. Pedro de Rivero in the refectory
of the Friars of the Convent of Santiago—where, adds Mendieta,
“ The gentlemen ate at the cost of the good Bishop Zumarraga.”’
Mendieta also gives us the names of the teachers who taught during
those early prosperous years and who quite probably were the instruc-
tors of the two authors of our herbal. Fr. Arnaldo de Bassacio, who
first taught Latin, was followed by Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun and
*“ Mendieta gives the year of the founding of the college one year later than
that given by Bourne and Merriman.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fr. Andres de Olmos. All three of these were gifted scholars of the
Aztec language, and undoubtedly gave instruction in the writing of
Aztec. (The Nahuatl grammar of Olmos is still today the background
for all recent studies of the language.) Fr. Juan de Gaona also taught
rhetoric, logic, and philosophy. And in addition we read “ For a short
time they taught also Medicine to the Indians, which they still use
in their knowledge of herbs and roots and other things which they
apply in their illnesses.”
The fame of the college grew and flourished to such an extent
that by the time of the second viceroy D. Luis de Velasco (1550-64),
the rents of the college were not sufficient to sustain so many students.
Through the intercession of the viceroy, the Emperor, Philip II, aided
each year with two to three hundred ducats.” But after his death,
the college lost favor with both the church and the governors. For
a while the Indians themselves made an attempt to support the col-
lege, and we read the following notes from Mendieta: “ The convent
of Santiago of Tlalteloleo (in the borough of Mexico) has sustained
itself very abundantly with the alms of the Indians, having continu-
ously a gathering of Indian guests.” . . . . “ Indian butchers brought
meat to the convent of Tlalteloleco on Saturday as their offerings.”’
But by the time Mendieta was completing this history, approximately
in 1598, we find him writing: “ But this all is finished, and now the
college serves for little more than to teach the Indian children who
gather there, who are from the town of Tlaltelolco itself, good man-
ners and to read and write.”
Of all those who taught in the College of Santa Cruz, Friar Ber-
nardino de Sahagun was the most eminent. Of his long life in Mexico
(1529-1590), a large part was spent at Tlaltelolco. He was the first
of the Europeans to gather together data on native materia medica.
For the most part this was assembled in books 10 and 11 of his
“Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espana”. In a note of
especial interest attached to the end of book 6 (Codice Florentino,
libro 6 lam. 17), he tells us that he obtained his knowledge of Aztec
medicine from eight native physicians of the district of Tlaltelolco,
Santiago, and includes their signatures as follows: Gaspar Mattias,
Francisco Symon, Felipe Hernandez, Miguel Garcia, Pedro de San-
tiago, Miguel Damian, Pedro de Raquena, and Miguel Motolinia.
Book 6 was assembled in the year 1547, one year after the great
plague, but the major part of all his writings on native medicine was
not compiled until after 1557, when Fray Francisco Toral, Provincial
of the Franciscan Order, commanded him to put his vast amount of
Tcazbalceta (tr. of Mendieta), p. 415.
NO. 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—-EM MART 9
information into two volumes. To complete this work he was sent
to the Pueblo of Tepeopulco, of the district of Texcoco, where with
the assistance of 10 or 12 Indians who were former students, the
work was completed in 1569.”
A review of the known dates of his life shows that he was teacher
of Latin at the College of Santa Cruz between 1536 and 1540. Be-
tween 1540 and 1545 he was visiting commissioner to various Fran-
ciscan convents. In 1545 he returned to the Tlaltelolco and was there
until 1546, the year of the great plague. While nursing his beloved
Indians he acquired the infection and was himself removed to the
mother convent in Mexico City proper. The next year he returned
to Tlaltelolco. Between the years 1547 and 1552 his residence is not
known, but since in 1552, as a member of the governing board of the
Order, we find his signature affixed to a letter to the Emperor, this
would seem to indicate that he was in all probability in or near Mexico
City at the time. It is possible that he was in residence at the Convent
of Xochimilco, since we know that he was superior in that convent
about this time.
As might be expected, the medical writings of Sahagun and text
of the Badianus manuscript are closely related in subject matter as
well as in the etymology of the Aztec words. However, the former is
written in the manner of a notebook while the latter is a completely
organized treatise. Also the Badianus manuscript deals with many
more plants than the Sahagun. The illustrations are superior to the
Sahagun manuscript both in number and in anatomical detail.
The use of Aztec symbols to assist in the identification of plants
is to be found in both manuscripts. In the Badianus manuscript the
Aztec water symbol is sometimes drawn under the roots of plants
to indicate that it grows by flowing water. Where the water is not
flowing the background around the roots of aquatic plants is painted
blue. The use of the stone symbol, which is also found in the Sahagun
manuscript, becomes a highly developed art in the Badianus manu-
script, where it occurs with various modifications of form and color.
In all cases it is found beneath the roots of plants.
In attempting to identify the various infirmities under the Latin
title it is necessary to keep in mind that the manuscript is a descrip-
tion of diseases and ailments of natives of Mexico; and in addition that
it deals with the materia medica of a people who lived in a tropical
country at an altitude of approximately 9,000 feet. Although it was
written within 31 years of the Conquest, the subject matter reaches
™ Bandelier, F. R., Ancient Mexico. Fisk University Press, 1932.
ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
far back into pre-Conquest times. The Nahuatl or Aztec Empire
drew from its conquered peoples, the Toltecs and the Mayas, for
much of its cultural background. Of these two peoples only Mayan
medical texts have come down to us. All of these were written long
after the Spanish Conquest and are believed to post-date the writing
of the present Aztec herbal. To gain an adequate idea of the signifi-
cance of much of the data of this herbal it is necessary to reach back
into Aztec times and at the same time turn to our most recent writings
in the field of tropical medicine and botanical research.
For the most part the materia medica deals with methods of treat-
ment empirically derived. There are no incantations and only a few
references to charms. The first chapter deals with head ailments, such
as heat and cold in the head, abscess of the head, scales or mange,
scabes, falling hair, and fractured head. The second chapter includes
a treatment for sore eyes, fever, blood shot eyes, cataract, eversion
of the eyelid, swelling of the eye, insomnia and a remedy to repel
drowsiness. The third chapter deals with ear infection.
As a typical example of the method of treatment of the text,
chapter four, because of brevity, permits of publication here. It
reads as follows:
Fourth Chapter
Concerning catarrh, medicine to be instilled in the nose, herb for the blood.
Catarrh
Below this title are depicted two herbs, the Tzonpilihuizxihuitl and
the Atochietl. An etymological analysis of the former name gives
us the usage of the plant. Tzonpilihuiz-xihuitl is a compound word
derived from the Aztec verb Tzompiliui (Simeon, p. 666) “ meaning
“to have a cold in the head ” and the suffix, -xihuitl (Simeon, p. 699)
meaning “ plant’; so we may refer to Tzonpilihuizxihuitl as “ cold
in the head plant,” or briefly “ catarrh plant”. Jimenez” (book 1,
chap. 3) refers also to the use of catarrh medicine (Tzompilihuitz-
patli), and Hernandez“ (p. 29) refers to Tzimpalihuiz-patlin and
gives the variant name Texaxapotla, which he identifies as Ptarmuica
indica, but this does not agree with the picture in the Badianus manu-
script. The extract of Tzonpilihuizxihuitl is also used as a vermifuge
(Bad Ms: p51):
2 Simeon, Reni, Dictionnaire de la Langue Nahuatl. Paris, Imprimerie Na-
tionale, 1885.
* Jimenez, F., Quatro Libros de la Naturaleza . . . . Mexico, 1615.
“ Hernandez, Francisco, Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus
. 1651.
NO. 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—EM MART 1
For the Atochietl, the second plant shown on the same page, we have
but a single reference in which it is described as an aromatic plant,
the pennyroyal (Simeon, p. 37).
The text for the treatment of catarrh reads as follows:
GRAVEDO
Qui narium distillatione seu coriza infestatur herbas atochietl, et Tzompili-
huizxihuitl olfaciet et ita gravedini subveniet. [Those troubled with a dripping
nose or cold are to sniff the herbs Atochietl and Tzompilihuizxihuitl and help
the cold thus.]
A second remedy in the fourth chapter is entitled ‘ Medicine to
be instilled into the nose.” The following remedy for a headache
reads, “ The root of the herb Yztac pahtli [lit. “ white-medicine ” |
is to be bruised in a little clear water and the liquor poured into the
nostrils drop by drop for those suffering from a headache.”
The herb depicted above the text is of the family Mimosaceae, be-
longing to the genus Acacia farnesiana Willd.” An ointment made
from the flowers is used today in Mexico as a remedy for headache.
In addition an infusion of the flowers is used for dyspepsia.
The chapter closes with a remedy to stop nose bleeding. The plant
Atzitzicaztli, or water nettle, is used also for maladies of the neck
(Simeon, p. 664).
The remedy reads as follows:
The juice of nettles ground with salt in urine and milk poured into the
nostrils, stops bleeding.
Two of the most interesting plants used as a cure for pain are the
Tolohuaxihuitl and the Nexehuac (pl. 3). Both of these are Daturas
(Solanaceae). The first of these, Tolohuaxihuitl or Tolohua plant,
is referred to by Hernandez as D. stramonium. Sahagun” and
Clavigero “ refer to it as Toloache. Both the white-flowered and pur-
ple-flowered forms of this species occur in Mexico as well as in the
United States; the purple forms are usually called D. tatula. The
white-flowered forms may bear either smooth or prickly capsules, the
smooth variety being called D. inermis.” The adjacent plant, called
* Standley, P..C., Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., vol.
23, pt. 2, p. 378, 1922.
** Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espafia (1590). Publicase
con fondes de la secretaria de instrucion publica y bellas artes de Mexico, por
Francisco del Paso y Troncoso. Publ. Madrid Tototipia de Hauser y Menet,
1905-07.
™ Clavigero, F. J., Historia Antigua de Mexico. London, 1826.
* Safford, W. E., Narcotic Daturas of the Old and New World. Ann. Rep.
Smithsonian Inst. 1920, Publ. 2644, 1922.
TZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Nexehuac (Nexeua—the rambler—Simeon, p. 307), is depicted as
an erect, white-flowered form with purple, smooth-skinned fruit re-
sembling this type. The flowers are drawn as erect, the fruits pendant,
but since all the arborescent Daturas have unarmed fruits we may
consider either the drawing or the etymological derivation misleading.
Its smooth pods would probably place it as a variety of D. stramonium
known as D. inermuis Jacq.
Varieties of Datura have been used the world over for their nar-
cotic properties, the effect being due to the presence of the drug
atropine.
Besides these remedies just discussed in detail, there are others
for dysentery, skin disease, gout, pain in joints, various helminth
infections, and afflictions such as burned body, cracks in soles of feet,
and wounds of various types, and a number of other items. It is
worthy to be noted that fear, fatigue, and feeblemindedness are looked
upon as diseases and treated as such.
In chapter 10 we find a reference to a charm for getting across the
river safely ; chapter 11 is devoted to afflictions of women ; chapter 12
refers to remedies for children; and the book closes very fittingly
with two pages entitled “ Of certain signs of approaching death.”
The identification of plants depends to a large extent upon the
etymological analyses, which frequently give the usage, the place of
habitat, or a description of the plant itself. A complete analysis of
all the 313 Aztec or Nahuatl words has been made in the preparation
of the text for publication of this manuscript.” About 40 percent of
these are new words—that is, they do not occur in the early sources,
Molina,” Sahagun, Hernandez, or in the standard Simeon Aztec-
French dictionary. From Simeon however, the roots have been de-
rived, so that it has been possible to give a translation based upon
the etymological sources of the word.
This system of the Aztecs of building up a descriptive compound
noun results in the grouping of plants as to their color or form or
as aquatic plants, eatable plants, sweet or bitter plants, fragrant,
spinous, or medicinal. Examples of these when divided into their
respective roots are as follows: A-caca-pac-quilitl (an-agreeable-
eatable-water plant), Aca-mallo-tetl (water-plant captive (in) stone),
“The writer acknowledges the assistance of Dr. John P. Harrington, eth-
nologist, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, in verifying the etymologies of
the Aztec plant names.
* Molina, Fr. Alonso, Vocabulario de la Lengua Mexicana, compuesto porel
P. Fr. Alonso de Molina. Publicado de nuevo por Julio Platzmann, Leipsig, 1880.
NO: 2 THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT—EM MART Ibe)
Caca-matlalin (blue-colored herb), Chichic-xihuitl (bitter herb), Colo-
mecatl (trailing cord), Hahuiyac-xihuitl (fragrant plant).
The credit for this as a system of plant identification was first
recognized by Francisco Flores," eminent Mexican medical historian,
who mentioned it in his “ Historia de la Medicina en Mexico ” (1888),
but he does not give such an analysis. Instead he groups Aztec plant
names according to usage, such as tonics, antispasmodics, stimulants,
etc. Until the translation of the present volume, as far as is known,
no complete analysis of Aztec plant names has been undertaken.
The recognition of the modern botanical classification is most dif-
ficult. Without an analysis of the Aztec nouns, the usages of each
plant and the colored-plate identification would be impossible. In
addition it has been necessary to cross-reference every Aztec plant
name with sixteenth century Aztec-Latin botanical texts. Again,
without Standley’s important volumes on the trees and shrubs of
Mexico and the flora of Yucatan, this would have been impossible.
Of the sixteenth century Aztec-Latin sources, only two are of the
greatest importance. The first, volumes 10 and 11 of the Sahagun
manuscript, is the most important, since the work is both contempo-
rary with, and deals with plants of the same district as, the Badianus
manuscript. The second is the great Hernandez volume, which was
written in the latter half of the sixteenth century, and although not
published until 150 years later, was one of the greatest herbals of
the sixteenth century. The excellent illustrations of the Hernandez
volume have been invaluable in checking the more primitive Aztec
drawings in the Badianus manuscript.
Besides the use of plants, animals, stones, and various kinds of
earth, salts and carbon were used in the concoction of Aztec medical
formulas. Of the stones, pearls of various kinds, the eztetl (jasper),
the tetlahuitl (precious ocre stone), and the tlahcalhuatzin are the
most frequently used. Numerous references are found to the use of
bezoar stones, which they obtained from 1o different species of birds.
Earths of various kinds classified according to their color were used,
as well as soda and salt. The latter was obtained in cakes from the
salt lake of Texcoco and, in the Aztec Empire period, was one of the
chief articles of trade. Animal charcoal was used then as it still is
today—although in a purer form—in the preparation of bitter prin-
ciples for infusions and tinctures.
Of the animals used, the greater part were birds, although the stag,
dog, fox, jaguar, monkey, and many other kinds were included.
*t Flores, Francisco A., Historia de la Medicina en Mexico. Oficina Tip de la
Secretaria de Fomento, vols. 1, 2, and 3, 1886.
1 fe SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Medicaments were either taken internally or used as lotions and un-
guents, and modes of treatments, intervals between dosages, and symp-
toms are also included. In many respects the treatments compare
favorably with those of Europe. That Aztec medical knowledge was
considered superior is obvious from the fact that it was taught at the
College of Santa Cruz in preference to European medicine. It is
especially significant that Philip II sent Dr. Francisco Hernandez,
under the title of Protomedico of Spain, to New Spain with the
commission to gather together the knowledge of native plants and
their usage. Parts of his great work were collected by Dr. Nardo
Antonio Recchi and published in one great volume by the Lyncean
Society in 1651. The interest of Europeans in Aztec medicine is also
reflected in the writings of Dr. Nicholas Monardes, whose work on
the medical knowledge of the Occidental Indies was published in
1569 and translated into English in 1577 by John Frampton. The
works of Carlos Clusius, Caesalpinus, and others all reflect the in-
troduction of Aztec medical knowledge into Europe. The extent to
which Aztec medical knowledge influenced the medical practices in
Europe can only be judged by a careful examination of the later
sixteenth and seventeenth century herbalists in whose work references
to Mexican plants occur.
All these latter works of European authors present a picture of
Aztec medical learning as it appeared when viewed through the eyes
of Europeans. The Sahagun manuscripts alone show a close kinship
to the Badianus manuscript. This would be expected because of both
the time of writing and the source of material.
The Badianus manuscript holds the unique position of being the
earliest written Aztec herbal as well as being the only one written by
the Aztecs themselves. It marks the beginning of herbal literature
on this side of the Atlantic. To the list of native Aztec students of
the College of Santa Cruz who distinguished themselves in the field
of letters, we add the names of Martin de la Cruz and Juannes
Badianus. The volume is a lasting tribute to the teachings of Fr. Ber-
nardino de Sahagun and the brothers of the Franciscan order who
taught at Tlaltelolco during the first 50 years of its existence.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 2, PL. 1
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FACSIMILE OF PAGE 49 OF THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT
“Against pain in the side. The application of the herbs Tolohuaxihuitl and
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLS 94 NOLS, hee
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94 NUMBER 3
Chomas Lincoln Casey FFund
THOMAS LINCOLN CASEY AND THE
enh COLLECTION OF
COLEOPTERA
(Wiru One Pirate)
BY
L. L. BUGHANAN
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
(PUBLICATION 3330)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 8, 1935
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 3. A.
FOREWORD
The Casey Collection of Coleoptera bequeathed to the United States
National Museum by Thomas Lincoln Casey, basis of a lifetime of
investigation on the part of one of the foremost coleopterists in
America, rich in types, with carefully selected specimens of a high
degree of perfection in preparation, contains material that is of con-
stant and permanent value to other systematic workers in the multi-
tude of families that Colonel Casey covered in his extended and pains-
taking researches. It is the most important single gift that has come
to the section to which it pertains in the Division of Insects.
Few words are necessary to explain that a private collection used by
one highly trained and careful individual may be kept and handled
successfully under an arrangement that is impossible in a public insti-
tution where material is consulted by many research workers. To
conserve space Colonel Casey pinned his specimens as closely as pos-
sible. To conserve time he used a method in labeling that, while safe
and effective for his purposes, would certainly lead to disastrous con-
fusion if placed’ in the hands of many. No one had fuller under-
standing of these facts than Colonel Casey himself, and usually he
handled his specimens personally when examining them with scientific
visitors.
The question of safeguarding this collection adequately became para-
mount at once on its receipt in the National Museum. Dr. J. M.
Aldrich, Associate Curator of the Division of Insects, with the ad-
vice of S. A. Rohwer, Entomologist in Charge of Taxonomic Inves-
tigations, Bureau of Entomology, on March 3, 1925, called a confer-
ence of coleopterists and others interested to consider this matter. At
this meeting Mr. Rohwer presented a set of resolutions, adopted after
due discussion, that indicated the importance of the collection and the
necessity of careful labeling and arrangement before the material was
thrown open to general consultation and use. The necessary funds
for effecting this were a matter for some consideration. The matter
rested here until August 12, 1925, when I appointed a committee to
consider recommendations for procedure, consisting of Dr. Aldrich
as chairman, assisted by W. S. Fisher and H. S. Barber of the Bureau
of Entomology, and Dr. E. A. Chapin of the Zoological Division of
the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agri-
culture. After due and careful consideration this group rendered a
report on September 15 which, with some slight modification, has
ill
iv FOREWORD
served as the method for the handling and installation of the collec-
tion. The details of this are described by Mr. Buchanan in the follow-
ing report and need not be itemized here.
A beginning in labeling and arrangement was made by H. S. Barber,
but it was evident at once that definite assistance was required to carry
the matter forward. Realizing this need and desiring in every way
to hasten the arrangement of the material so that it might be made
available as promptly as possible, Mrs. Laura Welsh Casey established
a special fund carried in her name under the Smithsonian Institution
and made available the necessary money to carry on the work. An
agreement was made with the Bureau of Biological Survey, United
States Department of Agriculture, whereby Mr. L. L. Buchanan was
released for half time employment under this fund for work on the
Casey Collection, and the arrangement began on April 1, 1926. This
cooperative arrangement was continued later with the Bureau of
Entomology following Mr. Buchanan’s transfer to that service. Cases
for storage also were purchased. In addition to all this, Mrs. Casey,
with the advice of Dr. W. M. Mann, supplied an excellent microscope
of modern type, and arranged for binding many of the reference
works in the special library that accompanied the collection.
That the long task of arranging the collection went forward from
this time without delay has been due entirely to the steady interest
and encouragement of Mrs. Casey, to whom all thanks are due for
furthering this monument to the memory of her distinguished husband.
In addition to supplying funds for the arrangement of the collec-
tion Mrs. Casey has by gift to the Smithsonian Institution established
a permanent endowment known as the Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund,
the income of which is to be used for maintenance of the Casey Col-
lection and for the general promotion of research in Coleoptera. Under
this fund there will be published from time to time in the Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections papers dealing with the Casey Collection
and with Coleoptera in general, the present account by Mr. Buchanan
initiating this series. All publications appearing under these auspices
will be designated as under the Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund.
In closing it is fitting that I should express to Mr. L. L. Buchanan
the thanks of the Smithsonian Institution for the careful and con-
scientious manner in which he has carried forward to completion the
exacting task of arranging the Casey Collection. The present installa-
tion has aroused the admiration of all who have visited the Casey room
since this work has been completed.
ALEXANDER WETMORE,
Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Thomas DLincoln Casev Fund
THOMAS LINCOEN CASEY AND DHE CASEY COLERC
HONOr COLEOPTERA
By &, kL, BUCHANAN
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture
(With One Ptrate)
Thomas Lincoln Casey was both soldier and man of science. Seldom
does one lifetime present substantial and valued achievement in two
fields as widely separated as were the two provinces of this coleopterist
who was also an army engineer.
Born in 1857 at West Point, he was the son of Brig.-Gen. Thomas
Lincoln Casey, who as Chief of Engineers of the United States Army
was to carry through the construction of the Congressional Library
building, and of the upper part of the Washington Monument. One
of his grandfathers was Maj.-Gen. Silas Casey, and the other was
Robert W. Weir, for 50 years professor of drawing at the United
States Military Academy. After a year in the Sheffield Scientific
School of Yale University he entered the Military Academy at West
Point. There he was a high-stand man through the four years of
his course. Upon his graduation in 1879 his position in his class ad-
mitted him to the Corps of Engineers, and by the time he retired from
active duty in 1912 he had reached the rank of colonel.
Astronomy was the field in which the young lieutenant did his
earliest scientific work. His first military assignment took him to
the Engineer and Submarine Mining School at Willet’s Point, now
Fort Totten at one of the entrances to New York harbor; here he
made a specialty of theoretical and applied astronomy, to such good
effect that in 1882, when Prof. Simon Newcomb led an expedition to
the Cape of Good Hope to observe the transit of Venus, Lieutenant
Casey was a member of the party and acted as assistant astronomer.
He was also a member of the Greer County Commission, which went
to Texas in 1886 to mark the boundary lines between a portion of what
was then the Indian Territory and the State of Texas.
* The writer wishes to acknowledge his deep obligation to Clara Cutler Chapin,
who prepared the biographical sketch, and made many helpful suggestions relating
to other portions of the manuscript.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 3
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
In 1898 Captain Casey was married to Miss Laura Welsh, of Phila-
delphia, and they made their first home in Virginia. Captain Casey
had been in charge of construction work at Fort Monroe; upon the
outbreak of the Spanish War he was made major and was entrusted
with the submarine mine defenses of Hampton Roads.
Early in the present century Major Casey was assigned to duty on
the Mississippi River, and here began an interest in conchology which
was to continue throughout his life. For 4 years he was a member of
the Mississippi River Commission, stationed first at Vicksburg and
later at St. Louis. It was at this time that he began to build up the
notable collection of recent and fossil shells of the lower Mississippi
which served as basis for studies carried on during the later years of
his life.
For 40 years Thomas Lincoln Casey was an eager and devoted
student of Coleoptera. Half a dozen of his papers on North American
beetles appeared in the year 1884, and from then on they were fre-
quent. The 50 or more publications which came out before 1910 were
confined to Coleoptera of North America, but with the ‘“ Memoirs
on the Coleoptera ”’ (1910-1924) he enlarged his field to include Cen-
tral and South American species as well. Every paper was the fruit
of careful and accurate study.
By field work and by extensive purchases, the young officer was
carefully building up a collection of American Coleoptera and a library
of the publications dealing with them, which were to excite the ad-
miration of all who were privileged to examine them. The constant
shifting of base which was involved in his army career enabled him
to do field work and make additions to his collection in almost every
section of our country, for he was stationed successively on Long
Island, in Philadelphia, in California, in Texas, in Rhode Island, at
New York, in Virginia, at Vicksburg, at St. Louis, and finally at
Washington, D. C., where he continued to make his home after his
retirement in IQ12.
His studies were based on specimens in his possession, and were a
regular feature of his early schedule. Two hours of the leisure left
by his military duties were devoted to entomology. In this daily
period he put his specimens under his binocular compound microscope
and subjected them to an examination that was detailed and thorough
to the last degree. Measurements, when taken, were painstakingly
accurate, and every fine point of habitus and sculpture was covered
in his notes. Many of his papers were privately printed and were
distributed so as to put their findings at the disposal of all students
to whom they would be of value.
NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—-BUCHANAN 3
Colonel Casey died February 3, 1925, and the microscope he had
used throughout his long entomological career was buried with him.
His large and valuable entomological and conchological collections,
each with its comprehensive library, were left to the United States
National Museum. His other property was left to Mrs. Casey for
life, the estate to be given eventually to three scientific societies, the
National Academy of Sciences, the New York Academy of Sciences,
and the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Mrs. Casey was named -
sole executor.
The Casey collection of Coleoptera was transported by automobile
from the Casey apartment by H. S. Barber and E. A. Chapin and
was stored for a short time in a tower room of the Old Museum
building ; later it was transferred to a room in the Natural History
building where it remains. Casey’s entomological library, consisting
of about 900 volumes and many separates, accompanied the beetle
collection, and the two items now form a compact and accessible unit
for research on matters connected with Casey’s work.
The collection as received was housed in about 260 boxes of the
Schmitt type, contained in wooden cabinets. The specimens themselves
were clean, well mounted, and in good condition. In general, the
series of the different species were clearly segregated, the first speci-
men bearing the name label, the others grouped after it in the con-
ventional manner. Because of the uniformity of mounts, the unusually
small locality labels, and the precise alignment of material, Casey was
able to get an astonishingly large number of specimens in some of
the boxes. His manual skill in handling material gave to parts of the
collection a deceptive appearance of ample spacing, but the abnormal
compression immediately became evident when attempts were made
to remove or to replace individual specimens, and showed the im-
practicability of allowing students the privilege of studying the collec-
tion in the original boxes.
The uniformity of mounts, so conspicuous a feature of the collection
as a whole, is due to a practice Casey followed for a good many years;
besides preparing the considerable quantities of material he himself
collected, he remounted all specimens received from correspondents.
In Memoir 7, page 35, 1916, he speaks of careful mounting as a
“prime necessity’, even though such curatorial work “absorbs a
very large proportion of all the time available for such [research]
studies in the daily routine of life, which flows along and ebbs away
with ever increasing speed’. Suggestions as to the proper mounting
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of small Staphylinidae are given in Memoir 2, page 2, 1911, while in
Memoir I, page I, 1910, objections are made to the European method
of mounting on cards.
The collection contains considerable amounts of exotic material,
both named and unnamed, in nearly all the groups monographically
studied, especially in the families Scarabaeidae, Staphylinidae, Cur-
culionidae, Tenebrionidae, and Cryptophagidae. The regions repre-
sented are chiefly Europe, Mexico, and Central and South America.
There is also a quantity of undetermined North American material,
the bulk of it in those families not critically studied by Casey.
Here and there throughout the collection stand specimens labeled
simply “LL”. These are part of the old Levette cabinet, concerning
which Casey says (Coleopterological Notices, 2, p. 501, 1890): The
material is “from the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, and Colorado,
much of which was probably collected by Morrison”. In recording
locality for those ‘‘L” specimens surmised to be from the eastern
part of the United States, Casey generally suggests either “ Indiana ”
or “ Indiana?’’; for those thought to be of western origin, he often
gives Colorado. A good many of Casey’s specimens bearing label
“Ari” or “Ariz” are probably Levette collection material.
The abbreviation “typ.”, which frequently appears on the name
labels of species of other authors, stands for “typical” (not “ type”)
and shows that Casey regarded the specimen as a typical example be-
cause of its agreement with the original description or with the actual
type. Considerable reliance can be placed on such determinations,
especially in the case of Leconte or Horn species, with the types of
which Casey compared much of his material.’
Name labels reversed or folded generally indicate that Casey re-
garded the specimen as incorrectly determined, or considered the spe-
cies a synonym. In a few cases name labels were folded for no
apparent reason other than to reduce their size.
Compared to most modern collections, the Casey Collection contains
a rather small average number of specimens per species, though this
condition would naturally follow in the case of a private cabinet where
species lines are closely drawn. However, Casey’s series were often
ample, including from several up to 20 or more specimens, and more-
over there is evidence, in the case of certain species, that he examined
many more specimens than now appear in the collection. For example,
2 In Coleopterological Notices, 5, p. 599, 1893, Casey says that Centrinus canus
“is the only species not described from the original type or a specimen care-
fully compared therewith”. There are many statements of similar purport in
his writings.
NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—BUCHANAN 5
in Memoir 7, page 2, 1916, he refers to the study of 275 individuals of
Saprinus lugens Erichson from Arizona, though at present there are
but six Arizona specimens of this species in the collection. Again,
among Casey’s 16 examples of Tyloderma foveolata Say is a pair
from Indiana, the smaller of which bears a folded label in Casey’s
handwriting, “ smallest of 65’, the larger a similar label, “ largest of
65”. The greater convenience of small, selected lots for study pur-
poses was no doubt Casey’s principal reason for restricting the size
of his series, with insufficient storage space a contributory factor. It
is not to be supposed that he discarded all the duplicates, as on more
than one occasion consignments of. excess material were sent to the
National Museum and possibly to other institutions or correspondents
as well.
Casey’s unusual scheme for indicating the locality of his specimens
deserves special mention. The base of this system is a small State
abbreviation label to which he added various marks or symbols—dots,
dashes, and crosses—in black or red ink. The nature, number, ar-
rangement, and color of these marks on the label gives the clue to the
definite locality within the State and sometimes to additional informa-
tion as to date and collector. For example Ari denotes Sabino Canyon,
Santa Catalina Mountains, Arizona, collected by J. F. Tucker. There
are altogether about 160 different kinds of these cryptic labels repre-
sented in the collection. A complete list of them, together with their
more precise locality equivalents, arranged alphabetically by States,
is kept on file in the Casey room with the collection, so that the exact
locality of any specimen can be quickly ascertained.
In adopting this unorthodox method of labeling, Casey’s purpose
was to obtain a label which, while giving the essential data or clue
to such data, at the same time was small enough to permit unobstructed
examination of the ventral surface of the specimen. The short focal
distance and high magnification attendant on the use of his old-
fashioned binocular compound microscope made small labels a virtual
necessity ; in the case of minute beetles, such labels had the further
merit of conserving space, increasing the available pinning area in his
boxes by one-third or more. Casey followed this scheme of labeling
for many years, but finally gave it up, doubtless because the growth
of his collection rendered the system too complicated for easy use.
The conventional locality labels which were attached to later material
were reduced to the desired smallness by folding, either once or twice,
but always so as to leave the State name uppermost.
Of the 9,400 species described by Casey, the type specimens of most
have been located. The types of a few however, some Ig in number,
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
appear to have disappeared from the collection. These are: Amara
marylandica, Amercedes subulirostris, Bembidion militare, Celia fer-
ruginea, Celia pallida, Epipocus punctipennis, Eumononycha opaca,
Euplectus impressiceps, Lathropus pubescens, Laemophloeus flori-
danus, L. horni, L. schwarzi, Phyllophaga subpruinosa, Ptilium sul-
catum, Stenolophus gracilis, Stethobaris cicatricosa, Tachys occulator,
Telephanus lecontei, Thesium laticolle. The disappearance of most of
these types is referred to by Casey in Memoir 5, page 283, 1914, and in
Memoir 8, page 291,1918. The types of two other species, Colon decoris
and Trichopteryx fungina, which were at one time thought by Casey to
have been lost (Memoir 5, p. 283, 1914, and Memoir 11, p. 155, 1924),
were located during the progress of the curatorial work on the collec-
tion, the former among a lot of small Sil/phidae, the latter in the set
of Acratrichis parallela Mots. In addition to Casey’s own types, the
collection contains type material of 100 or more species of various
other authors.
Shortly after the public announcement of Casey’s bequest of his
collection to the National Museum, tentative plans were made looking
toward the future care and upkeep of this notable accession. Details
of the preliminary arrangements that led finally to my appointment as
Specialist for the Casey Collection of Coleoptera under the Smith-
sonian Institution are outlined in the foreword to this article. The
main objective was to transfer the Casey material from the over-
crowded original boxes to standard Museum insect drawers, with each
species segregated in an individual cork-lined box or tray. Until this
transfer of material could be accomplished, the collection remained
sealed, as any attempt at unrestricted study of the specimens as they
were left by Casey inevitably would have resulted in more or less
breakage and confusion. The curatorial work was started by the
writer on April 1, 1926, and was continued, half a day at a time, for
a period of 5 years.
The cardinal rule guiding the curatorial work was to preserve
exactly Casey’s concept of each species. Regardless of occasional con-
flict with accepted synonymy, Casey’s arrangement of specimens was
strictly followed; furthermore, steps were taken to virtually guarantee
the permanent preservation of this arrangement, so that students, both
now and in the future, will have equal assurance that before them
stand Casey’s actual original series of each species, and not a hodge-
podge resulting from accidental misplacement of specimens or inter-
~# A specimen of this species in the collection bears a label on the back of
which appears this statement in Casey’s handwriting: “The type is in Carnegie
Mus. Pittsburg.”
NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—BUCHANAN Ti
polation of later and irrelevant material. Casey’s arrangement was in-
dicated by attaching to each specimen a label giving the specific name
Casey det., Casey det.,
of the species and its sequence in the series, as, yinwla g Sar ee
Casey det. Fach species was then placed in a suitable-sized tray on
which appears the full scientific name. No material is to be added
to these trays, and none is to be transferred, except in a few special
cases.
In addition to the ‘“‘ Casey det.’ and type labels, used of course
Ca
only on identified material, a small pin label bearing legend benuest
was attached to every specimen in the collection, named or unnamed.
Also, a record of all the North American species in the collection
was entered in a copy of Leng’s Catalog of Coleoptera.
When the work of arrangement had been completed, a manuscript
catalog of the entire collection was prepared by Miss Marie Siebrecht,
working under my direction, that will serve as an historical record
for future reference should any question arise as to any of this
material. Data in this catalog are arranged systematically, the order
of genera and families being essentially that of the Leng Catalog of
North American Coleoptera. The list gives the total number of
specimens for each species, with indication of types. A synopsis at
the end serves as an index to the families and to the number of speci-
mens that these include. The collection as thus recorded is found to
contain 19,245 named forms, with a total of 116,738 specimens, and
more than 9,200 holotypes.
It is well known that Casey did not make a practice of marking the
types in his collection. The various terms now in common use to
distinguish different categories of type material were not uniformly
applied by Casey in his writings * and very seldom used on the speci-
mens themselves. However, Casey did make the verbal statement that
the specimen bearing the name label was to be considered the true
type, as shown in this extract from a letter of November 3, 1927, from
J. C. Crawford to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Assistant Secretary,
Smithsonian Institution:
About ten years ago Dr. Hopkins and I visited Colonel Casey at his request
to see both his collection and the conditions under which he worked. At that
time both Dr. Hopkins and I complained to Colonel Casey of the types in the
Casey Collection not being labeled. Colonel Casey made the statement, which
*Memoir 1, p. 20, 1910, “Sexual characters are not evident in the types”;
ibid., p. 122, “ The types are females”; ibid., p. 136, ‘‘ The type is from San
Diego” (four other localities mentioned) ; Memoir 2, p. 6, 1011, “minuta
cotypes ” ; Memoir 6, p. 330, 1915, “ three cotypes ”.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
he said was to be regarded as official and for our information in case he should
die without making a similar statement to other people, that the specimen bearing
the name label was in all cases to be regarded as the true type. To this he
added that the true type was the only specimen with which he was really con-
cerned, and that therefore what we call paratypes were not indicated.
(Signed) J. C. Crawrorp.
Casey’s purpose is disclosed, though less definitely, as early as 1886,
(Descriptive Notices, 1, p. 162) where he says, “ It will be observed
that the descriptions refer in all cases to the single specimen assumed
as the type’’, and “I have preferred, therefore, in the existing state
of knowledge, to describe one definite type and give such general re-
marks as may indicate the variation exhibited by the material at hand.”
The type labeling has been carried out to respect this clearly stated
intent on Casey’s part. A special U.S.N.M. type label was attached
to the labeled or first specimen of each of Casey’s species—that is,
where no discrepancies between specimen and description were no-
ticed—whereas paratype labels were attached to those specimens evi-
dently examined by Casey at the time of the original description. A
query sign, preceding the name of the species on the paratype label, as
Pruber 2 oe :
Paratype USNM, indicates that the specimen, though doubtless a para-
3 9
type, had been set apart slightly by Casey as possibly distinct; while
the query mark before the number, but not before the name, shows
that the specimen, although clearly placed with the species by Casey,
fails to meet the paratype requirements in one way or another. Where
the true holotype could not be located with certainty, a neotype label
was used. These neotype designations, of course, have no binding
value unless published, but they permitted the assignment of a cata-
log number, which in turn afforded a ready means of recording.
The actual types of some of these “ neotype”’ species will certainly
come to light sooner or later either in the Casey collection or in the
cabinets of other workers or institutions. In the meantime, the neo-
type label acts as a sufficient warning that this particular specimen
probably is not the original type.
Certain complications in the curatorial work resulted from the
inexact citation of type locality in some of Casey’s original descrip-
tions. In several places Casey cites a regional locality when the label
on the specimen is definite, as, “ Southern Shore of Lake Michigan ”
or “ Rocky Mountains’, when the labels themselves read “ Milw.Co.
Wisc.” and “Garland Col.”, respectively. Again, we may have the
exact locality of the second or following specimen of a series, when
the type itself (that is, the specimen bearing the name label) carries
‘
INOS CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—BUCHANAN 9
only a general or State label. An illustration is found in the staphy-
linid, Datomicra surgens Casey. The type locality of this species is
given as Glenora, B. C.; the collection contains two specimens, the
first of which, or type, bears the label “ Br.C.”, the second, or para-
type, “ Glenora, B.C., Wickham”. In this case there can be no doubt
that the first example formed the basis of Casey’s original description,
represented in his eyes the true type, and by any reasonable interpreta-
tion must receive the type label, even though the specimen, on visible
evidence, does not come from the stated type locality. Any other
plan for handling such cases (and it may be said that serious thought
was given to other possibilities) leads only to endless and insoluble
complications. Bearing directly on this matter are some remarks by
Casey himself in regard to Acmaeops variipes Casey. In Memoir 4,
page 239, 1913, he explains that “ The locality Sta. Cruz Co., given
under the original description of variipes (Annals N. Y. Academy
Sciences, vol. 6, p. 38) was taken from a specimen of the series bear-
ing this definite label; others had simply ‘Cal’ as a label, one of
which, the type, I find had a minute label concealed by the other and
bearing the initials ‘S.D’.”’ In other words, Casey’s original set of
varupes really included three different labels, “S.D,Cal”, “ Cal”,
and “ Sta.Cruz Co.” The original description calls for Sta.Cruz Co.
alone, but Casey 22 years later positively states that the real type,
(doubtless the specimen on which his description is based) is from
“S D (San Diego) Cal”. A considerable number of similar dis-
crepancies were met with, but the Acmaeops sample happens to be one
that Casey comments on in a definite enough way to give an insight
into one of his rather free methods of locality citation.
Another puzzling situation grew out of Casey’s occasional misin-
terpretation of locality symbols. For instance, N Y, translated by
Casey’s list of localities as “ Catskill Mts (Shokan) ”’, is more than
once confused with N Y, given as “ New York City (Brooklyn) ”
by the same list.
Again, there are instances where Casey evidently had private in-
formation as to the exact source of certain specimens that carry a
State label only, and we may find “Ja” being published as “ Cedar
Rapids, Iowa”. Also, Casey sometimes gives the locality of the same
specimen with a different degree of definiteness in successive treat-
ments; for example, “ Pa” in 1900 may be cited as “ Philadelphia,
Pa.” in 1920. One of the more difficult of the curatorial problems
resulted from the fact that Casey occasionally shifted the name label
from the original type to some other specimen in the series. In all
observed cases of such label transfer the specimen bearing the name
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
label was of course not marked type. If the actual type could be
located it was so labeled; if not, a neotype label was attached to the
substitute, to serve until the holotype is recognized.
Casey’s interpolation of later material among his original series
sometimes prevented the assignment of paratype labels. For example,
Euphoria nitens Casey, described from Io specimens from Texas, was
represented in the Casey box by 14 examples, showing that four
specimens were added later to the original lot. All the specimens
except no. I and no. 3, which are unlabeled but which nevertheless
are almost certainly part of the original series of 10, bear Texas labels,
and all except one agree with the original description. That is, only
one example of the present 14 can be eliminated as a possible para-
type; consequently no paratype labels could be added. It may be ex-
plained that Casey followed no consistent method of incorporating
later specimens, sometimes placing them at the end, but oftener some-
where in the middle, of his original series.
The curatorial work made no pretense at a synonyrmical review of
the field, but aimed simply at the necessary clearing of the ground that
precedes critical study. Casey’s individualistic methods and volumi-
nous writings have created many zoological and nomenclatural prob-
lems that can be solved only by the patient investigations of future
students. Many generations must pass before the final verdict is
reached, but in the meantime it is hoped that the collection as it now
stands, cleared in part of confusing factors, will lend itself more
readily to a study of those problems in which Casey was so deeply
interested, and concerning which he once said: “ These fields of
scientific enquiry are all parts of one grand cosmos, and I cannot
conceive one of them to be more soul-inspiring than another; they
are all equally wonderful, equally beautiful, and equally beyond the
ken of finite intellect.”
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NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—BUCHANAN Wit
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I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
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NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—-BUCHANAN 13
IQOI
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1902
The Jackson Outcrops on Red River. Science, n. s., vol. 15, May 1902, pp. 716-717.
A New Genus of Eocene Eulmidae. The Nautilus, vol. 16, June 1902, pp. 18-10,
I text figure.
1903
Notes on the Conrad Collection of Vicksburg Fossils. Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. 55, Feb. 10903, pp.
261-283.
A Few Last Words to Dr. Wasmann. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 35, April 1903,
p. 108.
1904
Notes on the Pleurotomidae with Description of Some New Genera and Species.
Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. 14, May 10, 1904,
Pp. 123-170.
On Some New Coleoptera, Including Five New Genera. Canadian Entomologist,
vol. 36, Nov. 1904, pp. 312-323.
Notes (with preceding), pp. 323-324.
1905
A Revision of the American Paederini. Transactions of the Academy of Science
of St. Louis, vol. 15, April 1905, pp. 17-248.
A New Carabus and Cychrus, with Miscellaneous Notes on Coleoptera. Cana-
dian Entomologist, vol. 37, May 1905, pp. 160-164.
The Mutation Theory. Science, n. s., vol. 22, Sept. 1905, pp. 307-300.
1906
Observations on the Staphylinid Groups Aleocharinae and Xantholinini, Chiefly
of America. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. 16,
Novy. 1906, pp. 125-434.
Variation vs. Mutation. Science, n. s., vol. 23, April 1906, p. 632.
1907
Notes on Chalcolepidius and the Zopherini. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 30,
Feb. 1907, pp. 29-46.
A Revision of the American Components of the Tenebrionid Subfamily Ten-
tyriinae. Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 9,
Oct. 1907, pp. 275-522.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
1908
A Revision of the Tenebrionid Subfamily Coniontinae. Proceedings of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 10, Apr. 1908, pp. 51-166.
On the W. Horn-Roeschke School. Entomological News, vol. 19, Jan. 1908,
pp. 38-41.
Remarks on Some New Pselaphidae. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 40, Aug. 1908,
pp. 257-281.
A New Genus of Byrrhidae. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 40, Aug. 1908,
pp. 281-282.
Notes on the Coccinellidae. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 40, Nov. 1908,
Pp. 393-421.
1909
Studies in the American Buprestidae. Proceedings of the Washington Academy
of Sciences, vol. 11, April 1900, pp. 47-178.
Studies in the Caraboidea and Lamellicornia. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 41,
Aug. 1900, pp. 253-284, 1 text figure.
IQ10
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. I. New Era Printing Company, Lancaster, Pa.,
IQIO, pp. 1-205.
Synonymical and Other Notes on Coleoptera. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 42,
Apr. I9I0, pp. 105-114.
On Some New Species of Balaninini, Tychiini, and Related Tribes. Canadian
Entomologist, vol. 42, Apr. 1910, pp. 114-144.
IQII
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. IJ. Lancaster, Pa., 1911, pp. 1-250.
Subsidence of Atlantic Shoreline. Science, n. s., vol. 34, July 1911, pp. 80-81.
IQI2
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. III. Lancaster, Pa., 1912, pp. 1-386.
1913
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. IV. Lancaster, Pa., 1913, pp. I-400.
The Law of Priority. Science, n. s., vol. 38, Sept. 1913, pp. 442-443.
IQI4
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. V. Lancaster, Pa., 1914, pp. 1-387.
IOIS
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. VI. Lancaster, Pa., 1915, pp. 1-460.
NO. 3 CASEY COLLECTION OF COLEOPTERA—BUCHANAN I
on
IQ16
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. VII. Lancaster, Pa., 1916, pp. 1-300.
A New Species of Baryodma. Canadian Entomologist, vol. 48, Feb. 1916,
pp. 70-71.
1918
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. VIII. Lancaster, Pa., 1918, pp. 1-427.
Reply to Professor Wilder, Science, n. s., vol. 47, June 1918, pp. 610-611.
1920
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. IX. Lancaster, Pa., 1920, pp. 1-520.
Remark on Family Names. Science, n. s., vol. 52, Nov. 1920, pp. 491-402.
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. X. Lancaster, Pa., 1922, pp. 1-520.
1924
Memoirs on the Coleoptera. XI. Lancaster, Pa., 1924, pp. 1-347.
"JSB9 IY} PAVMO} SE MOIA WUOJJOG “ABD SOPROIPUL MOTB FAVS JO JYSIA OF OULABT Jo YUL Ul yd dooq “YyWos dy} pavMo} st oanqoid doy
S3LIS YSISAWNSAOGNIT AHL AO SMAIA IWYHANAD
L “ld ‘Fb ‘ON ‘+6 “10A SNOILO31100 SNOANVITISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 4
A FOLSOM COMPLEX
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS
Aleve LINDENMEIER SITE IN
NORTHERN COLORADO
(WitTH 16 PLATEs)
BY
FRANK H:, Ho ROBERTS, JR.
Archeologist, Bureau of American Ethnology
(PUBLICATION 3333)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 20, 1935
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
CONTENTS
PAGE
MMEPOCUICELO ie avs ee esi eave anchor ee eTe cue fetal (ane laich.nls Graces wer eheueuaecpay anette oteccrenty ateaeorevaters I
Aifres Wind eniinereLysitess fers eaters or cve: fexenete a ois o ssclle si 6,5 Suns ha ase skates avin si erels II
OTE SE re rere epee atta ee apnea STS IETSe aie lov. Srls iccttalbsilare Sitatse ponche nasa Oe Fore teateiee arouses 15
Slot Sach AE een re GER COn eo err re Creme. Smo anacn Beata 22
Bevelcedsed stool Some cete ais ot ese aithern os) = aval ereveraeisiSale. cine oxsiauoee ey aeroe 24
(GEAVEES\. cia hen crest tinue aie Pees Afawvane OE Tn BORN Oe nia aod c 2
TNE VSO eee ree eae a eA rence Fevece teri eri at cra eves meacrs ters eranenetnte etter 27
isladesrandl chopmerSerecmone oiac 6 rescrctens on os ciao sisayetorelabopdel@is seupteta Ciera lets 28
INTFGE GI AMIEGTISCOIDIECES maercts at a. ciorevs cree cors, cance Suchen eilovocanate, Sioirey Suelo erator Pale 30
NdentiticatlonmolehOnesmemnmmer teers ere eiciclarre ee teketererel tettelelenetel tenet oer 31
SUamatndlty; ee en eels ise ee ne ote ia lolere orcas Sale so sisioie eta simeicial enesels eres 2
Bablioe cap livewicn views nome Se resins Gace ea ese eaves one © we oy eran ey dome le jeueetepenay eleven ier 33
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
PAGE
1. General views ‘of the Lindenmeier site..................¢. (Frontispiece )
2. 1. Ravine in which main deposit was found. 2. Deep pit at beginning
OlmINVEStIP ALO MSiabarres qe ehuaiaes wie =o Che Ca aerator nese etoaisO woken ae tate 30
3. I. Deposit in which materials were found. 2. Bones and “flint” in
Si ELT eed ee RTE soi cs Sue CaV Sea IAG ASTe a) goths od TRE HI EA Lotto a ole ore Sie -
Aa Channellaiakes anomHOlSomm pointer) ere eireicteteiel-yaisieltereleiererare ss
es POntiOnsuOr MOlSOmiepOImeSs crys eestor ,s0e\epo) ys. eivaia srocerert oes ela/ate) sycleke sl ovelstecs a
Os Portions of Holsom points; reverse on plate) Se eece aces paces sero) ss
Fa HGACINENtS nOMmMyE Olson pOintsandekmtVeS ms sselsee)lelciclaie octal slelehel el siare ele yt
SE Reverse on platez, pomtsramdilcmivesia. 44% -j-1-1ete sruieieloro sil wiererele orels 6.2101
Ome Smib=nOSedi we SCEAPCHS) mag si oheG, aes ssacchveretorecshe veneers teres ayeleyaye ess, oveite ie. sie a
10. End, side, and back views of “ snub-nosed” scrapers................--
TEAS IG Oe SCA MEL Stacker ey Ne ee YN eure ere aa naa AUNTIE RUAN ETS Laren elon areas eucie i
12; INObMISIEIKS GOES sooncnoodocobuosanuaecoondoodncudo00doDo DO dbOE s
W3 ey ChE OUSY thes cies phere Pay ty ae Te areas devas ete Odette CEL ME etree eNatS. /eUeuereLche alerts aba fone: -
A eNOS Hetlalcen Ket VeSi a a teient aeraicie sisi avsies cucleieve eiersrevesic epacieicne ole tote cheuete os
iG IBIEVGISS, jrrorayas, TabiroeKeley, lintel (elaine sco ooanocaccaouacnbonoundD0eS -
16. Sandstone objects and granite rubbing Stone...... 5.05... sees. ce %
TEXT FIGURES
ie oketchimapnotuthes lindenmeternsitese cece ee eiciersieiaielsiereioiereis «1011s 12
Py, AGS: Wein (ont tae [eller WOwtog oan congumnenoacueeodcoouenvonouoaa” 16
3. Stages in removing channel flake, and three types of base on Folsom
HOMME Gea od an 5 AOGUG Lun OU as SOOO RS roe LOO DIeT ROMS cero iocicr 20
A FOLSOM COMPLEX
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS AT THE LINDENMEIER
S1TE IN NORTHERN COLORADO
By PRANK H. H: ROBERTS, JR.
Archeologist, Bureau of American Ethnology
(WITH 16 PLATEs)
INTRODUCTION
Investigations at the site that yielded the first definite complex of
stone implements attributable to so-called Folsom Man came as the
culmination of an interesting series of events that began in May 1934.
In that month D. I. Bushnell, Jr., collaborator in anthropology, United
States National Museum, discovered in two collections gathered from
various parts of Virginia examples of the type of projectile point which
has been called Folsom. Announcement of this fact was made by the
Smithsonian Institution in one of its press releases. The article, with
photographs of the specimens, was printed in slightly revised form in
the Literary Digest for June 9, 1934. This notice loosed a veritable
flood of letters, and queries poured in from collectors all over the
country. There was some confusion about what constituted a Folsom
point, and the editors of the Digest felt that a second article, one
describing its characteristics in detail, was advisable. In response to a
request from them the writer prepared a statement which appeared in
the issue for July 28. The latter brought letters from many parts of
the United States from people who had examples of the Folsom type.
Among the letters were several which were received indirectly.
Maj. Roy G. Coffin, professor of geology at Colorado State College,
Fort Collins, had on two occasions, prior to the Digest articles, written
to Dr. John B. Reeside, Jr., geologist in charge, section of stratigraphy
and paleontology, United States Geological Survey, concerning a site
in northern Colorado. At that place he and a brother had found a
considerable number of Folsom points, several other kinds of chipped
tools, and indications that the implements had been made on the spot.
Following the appearance of the second Digest article, Major Coffin
again wrote to Dr. Reeside. The latter brought the correspondence to
a
the attention of Henry B. Collins, Jr., division of anthropology, U. S
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, NO. 4
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
National Museum, and he in turn transmitted the information to the
Bureau of American Ethnology. Several letters were exchanged be-
tween the writer and Major Coffin, and as a result of the correspon-
dence it was decided that a first-hand inspection of the site was
advisable. In September the writer was sent to Fort Collins. The
owner of the land, William Lindenmeier, Jr., gave permission for a
series of investigations, and preliminary prospecting was started.
The site is north of Fort Collins, Colo., just south of the Wyoming
line. It was first discovered in 1924 by Judge C. C. Coffin and his son
A. L. Coffin. Since then they and Major Coffin, with various friends,
have visited it from time to time and have collected numerous speci-
mens. When the writer went to Fort Collins, they had gathered 83
points or portions of points and about the same number of other
artifacts. From the very beginning of their finds the Coffins were
impressed with the fact that all of the points picked up at this location
differed from the usual Indian arrowheads which are so abundant in
that general region. Although they were convinced that the points
constituted a distinct type, they were not aware of their true signifi-
cance until informed by Dr. E. B. Renaud, of the University of
Denver, that they were Folsom points.
In the summer of 1930 Dr. Renaud and a number of his students,
under a project sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution Cooperative
Fund, the University of Denver, and the Colorado Museum of
Natural History, were making a survey of local collections and of
former village sites in Colorado and adjacent regions. Their purpose
was to plot distribution maps for various types of implements, with
the places where they were found. It was during these investigations
that the Coffin series was noted.” In June 1931 Dr. Renaud visited
the location from which the artifacts came, and he describes it briefly
in one of his reports.” No digging was done, but portions of two
Folsom points were picked up from the surface at that time. The
Coffins continued their visits intermittently and added specimens to
their collections. Most of the material was picked up from the surface,
but a few pieces were scratched out of the soil. No extensive work
was attempted until the autumn of 1934.
The place where the points and other implements were found by the
Coffins is a denuded area approximately 70 by 150 yards in extent.
The bulk of the material came from a small section covering only
about 30 square yards. The surface over a greater portion of this site
* Renaud, 1931a, p. 17.
* Renaud, 1932a, pp. 27-28.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 3
is the top of a hard, compact layer of grayish earth. The artifacts
recovered from it had undoubtedly been in top-level material which
was eroded away by wind and water. The implements, because of
their weight, had remained until picked up. In some places, there re-
mained portions of the sand, gravel, and nodule layer which had
overlain the compact deposit, and a few objects were found on the
contact line between the two. This part of the site did not offer any
particular inducements for digging, especially if it was desired to find
material in situ. At the close of the first day’s inspection the writer
was not sanguine over the prospects for getting information beyond
that already obtained by Judge Coffin and Major Coffin.
On the second day, however, when the writer, with Judge Coffin
and his son, was exploring the adjacent terrain, the Judge picked up
a portion of a Folsom point along the bank of a ravine which cuts
through the terrace some distance above the original site. Close in-
spection of the precipitous bank in the vicinity of this find revealed an
undisturbed and intact layer of midden material 14 feet below the
present ground level and 12 feet above the bed of the gully. A brief
investigation demonstrated that the deposit, which is a quarter of a
mile away from the spot where the majority of the Coffin specimens
was found, was a likely place for excavation. Work was started and
continued through the month of October and into the first part of
November. Some digging was done at other portions of the site, but
the major activity was restricted to the deep pit in the gully bank
where most of the specimens described in following pages were found.
The type of point called Folsom has been known for a long time.
Variations of the form have been found from the Rockies to the
Atlantic, from southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. It is repre-
sented in collections in numerous museums and in at least one case has
been called by another name, the Seneca River point. Except for a
few instances, it did not attract particular attention despite its peculiar
characteristics. This was in part due to the fact that most of the
examples were surface finds. Its true significance was established in
1927, and the interest focused upon it brought to light many which
had previously passed unnoticed.
Because of a certain amount of confusion and misunderstanding
concerning the original Folsom finds, a brief review of the subject is
germane to the present discussion. In the summer of 1925 Fred J.
Howarth and Carl Schwachheim of Raton, N. Mex., both now de-
* Beauchamp, 1897, figs. 13, 14, p. 21. Brown, 1926, fig. 45, p. 138. Thruston,
1890, fig. 139, pp. 231-232.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ceased, notified Director J. D. Figgins of the Colorado Museum of
Natural History, Denver, of a bone deposit which they had found in
the bank of an arroyo on the upper sources of the Cimarron River
near the town of Folsom in eastern New Mexico. Samples of bone
sent to the museum indicated that the remains were those of an
extinct species of bison and of a large deerlike member of the
Cervidae. Prospects for fossil material were so promising that the
Colorado Museum sent a party to the site in the summer of 1926.
During the course of the excavations, carried on under the super-
vision of Frank Figgins and Mr. Schwachheim, parts of two finely
chipped projectile points were recovered from the loose dirt at the
diggings. Near the place where one of them had been dislodged a
small, triangular piece of “flint”? was found embedded in the clay
surrounding an animal bone. This fragment was left in the block of
earth, and when the latter was received in the laboratory at Denver,
the dirt was carefully cleaned away from the bit of stone. It appeared
to be from the same material as one of the points, and close examina-
tion showed that it actually was a part of the point. This evidence
seemed unquestionably to demonstrate that here was a definite asso-
ciation between man-made objects and an extinct bison.’
Director Figgins was so impressed with the find and was so
thoroughly convinced that it was of importance to students of Ameri-
can archeology that he took the points with him that winter when he
visited several of the large eastern museums on paleontologic busi-
ness. In most places his announcement was courteously yet skeptically
received. One authority on stone implements marveled at the quality
of workmanship that the specimens exhibited and even remarked
that they were reminiscent of the finest examples from Western
Europe. He was doubtful, though, of the trustworthiness of the asso-
ciation. He thought that it could perhaps be attributed to an accidental
mixing of material. Others said that the points had no significance
because they could be duplicated in existing collections. At a few
museums, notably the American Museum of Natural History, Mr.
Figgins was urged to continue the work in the hope that additional
evidence could be obtained.
The Colorado Museum again sent a party to Folsom in the summer
of 1927 and had the good fortune to find additional points. One of
these was noted before it was removed from the matrix, even before
it was completely uncovered. Work was stopped immediately on that
part of the excavation, and telegrams were dispatched to various
* Cook, 1927. Figgins, 1927.
INO; 4 A FOLSOM COM PLEX—ROBERTS 5
museums and institutions inviting them to send representatives to view
the point in situ. The writer at that time was attending the first South-
western Archeological Conference at Pecos, N. Mex., and, upon re-
ceiving notice of the find and travel instructions from Washington,
proceeded to Folsom. Arriving at the fossil pit, on September 2, he
found Director Figgins, several members of the Colorado Museum
board, and Dr. Barnum Brown, of the American Museum of Natural
History, New York, on the ground. The point, which became the
pattern and furnished the name for the type, had just been uncovered
by Dr. Brown. There was no question but that here was the evidence
of an authentic association. The point was still embedded in the
matrix between two of the ribs of the animal skeleton. In fact it has
never been removed from the block, which is now on exhibit in the
Colorado Museum at Denver. On returning to Raton, N. Mex., that
evening, the writer telegraphed to Dr. A. V. Kidder at Pecos and
urged that he visit the site. Dr. Kidder arrived 2 days later, and he
and the writer drove out to the bison quarry. After the whole situa-
tion had been carefully studied, it was agreed that the association could
not be questioned. Furthermore, it was ascertained that the points
were totally different from the ordinary types scattered over that por-
tion of the Southwest.
At the meeting of the American Anthropological Association held
at Andover, Mass., in December of that year Dr. Barnum Brown and
the writer reported on the Folsom finds. There was considerable dis-
cussion of the subject, and although many agreed that the discoveries
were important, there was still a general feeling of doubt. Numerous
explanations were offered to show that the points might have gotten
into such an association without actually being contemporaneous with
the bison remains. Several mentioned that points of that type were
numerous in collections from certain mound sites, from village sites in
New York State, and elsewhere, and for that reason they could not
be very old. Others insisted that, although they accepted the conclu-
sions on the genuineness of the finds, there must be some mistake
about the antiquity of the animal remains.
The summer of 1928 saw the American Museum of Natural History
and the Colorado Museum cooperating at the Folsom site. The expe-
dition was under the leadership of Dr. Barnum Brown, who was
assisted by several graduate students in anthropology. The latter were
under the general supervision of Dr. Clark Wissler. Additional points
and bison skeletons were found, and telegrams reporting the dis-
coveries were sent to various institutions. This time numerous special-
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ists—archeologists, paleontologists, and geologists—rushed to see the
evidence. The consensus of the informal conference held at the site
was that this constituted the most important contribution yet made to
American archeology. Some of the most skeptical critics of the year
before became enthusiastic converts. The Folsom find was accepted
as a reliable indication that man was present in the Southwest at an
earlier period than was previously supposed.
In subsequent years there has been considerable activity on the part
of those interested in tracing the distribution of the type of point
found there. Some have endeavored, without marked success, to find
new locations where further evidence could be obtained in situ.
Others have been content to make surveys showing the occurrence of
the type. There have been a few significant discoveries, but most of
the information thus far available concerns material found on the sur-
face. The latter is of value from the standpoint of distributional
studies, as an indication of likely spots for intensive work, and in
showing local variations in the type. Yet, so far as chronological
significance is concerned, it has added little to the knowledge gained at
Folsom. The most important contributions have come from sites in
New Mexico, where E. B. Howard, of the University of Pennsylvania
Museum, has been engaged in a series of investigations. In a cave in
the Guadalupe Mountains in the southeastern part of the State he
found a Folsom point in conjunction with musk ox and an animal of
the musk ox group.’ The musk ox is a cold-climate animal and when
found as far south as New Mexico, is generally considered good
evidence of an ice-age fauna. The association was of further signifi-
cance because it occurred in a stratum underlying a level containing
Basket Maker material. The latter belongs to the oldest definitely
established horizon in the culture-pattern sequence in the Pueblo area
of the Southwest. This is a good indication that the points antedate
the Basket Makers.
Near Clovis, N. Mex., Mr. Howard has been exploring a site where
large numbers of chipped implements, including Folsom specimens,”
and bones of extinct species of animals are found together. The chief
difficulty at this location, however, is that the material occurs in what
are known as “ blow-outs,” places where all of the top soil has been
carried away by action of the wind. For that reason accurate indica-
tions on associations are hard to obtain. The finds are in old lake beds,
and the geologic evidence is of significance. At the time of the pres-
° Howard, 1932.
* Anonymous, 1932; 1933. Howard, 1933; 10934, fig. I.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 7.
ent writing, official reports on the Clovis work have not been pub-
lished ; hence, reference can be made only to the investigations.
The exinct bison from the fossil pit at Folsom, Bison taylori*
(Stelabison occidentalis taylori and Bison oliverhayi*), are considered
to be Pleistocene forms, animals that were living in the glacial period.
This fact, coupled with the finding of points in association with bones
of the musk ox and of other extinct bison in additional localities,
furnishes the basis for the conclusion that the Folsom points repre-
sent considerable antiquity. This belief is substantiated by the fact
that at a number of sites points bearing certain characteristics of the
true Folsom type, yet not definitely assignable to that class, have been
found with remains of extinct species of animals. One of the sites
best illustrating this phase of the problem was that at Dent, Colo.,
where two points, one of which is decidedly Folsomoid, came from a
deposit containing mammoth bones.’ Several pits in Nebraska and
Kansas have yielded points, in some cases with mammoth bones and
in others with bison bones.” Near Colorado, Tex., an articulated
skeleton of an extinct bison and some chipped points were recovered
from a reputedly Pleistocene deposit.” Although the majority of the
blades in this group of finds are not primarily Folsom in type, the
conditions under which they were discovered tend to substantiate the
Folsom evidence for an early occupation of the New World. In the
latter connection, though they have no bearing on the Folsom problem
proper, might be mentioned an association of man-made objects and
traces of the ground sloth in Nevada,” and human bones with sloth
remains near Bishop’s Cap, N. Mex.” These occurrences are addi-
tional contributions on the “antiquity of man” in the Southwest.
Whether all of this evidence from the various places mentioned
actually dates man in the closing days of the Pleistocene, indicates his
presence at the beginning of the post-glacial period, or demonstrates
a later survival of ice-age animals is a phase of the problem which
the geologist and paleontologist must solve.“ Some insist that the
evidence unequivocally proves that man was here in the Pleistocene,
others that he came during the transition between the glacial and
“Hay and Cook, 1930.
* Figgins, 1933 b.
* Figgins, 1933 a.
* Bell and Van Royen, 1934. Schultz, 1932 (contains lengthy bibliography).
“ Figgins, 1927.
* Harrington, 1933.
* Bryan, 1929. Thone, 1920.
“For a discussion of this subject see Antevs, 1035.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Recent periods, but was not actually here in the ice age. All agree
that more data are essential. Archeologists generally concede that the
points belong to the earliest phase of aboriginal culture yet discovered
in America.
Distributional studies have demonstrated several facts. The most
significant of these is that there are two main classes of Folsom type
points: the true Folsom, and a larger, more generalized form em-
bodying most of its characteristics but not exhibiting the skilful work-
manship or mastery of the stone-chipping technique apparent on the
true example. Present evidence is that the true Folsom is restricted to
the strip of terrain, known as the High Plains, extending along the
eastern slopes of the Rockies. The other form not only occurs in the
High Plains but is widely distributed across the eastern portion of the
United States.” There are several places about which the latter seems
to center, notably the Finger Lakes section in New York State, in
Ohio, Tennessee, and southern Virginia. Sporadic examples have
come to light in various localities in practically every State east of the
Rockies and in portions of southern Canada. The problem of distribu-
tion for the eastern area received considerable attention several years
ago from Alfred Kidder, II, then a graduate student at Harvard Uni-
versity. E. B. Howard began his studies at about the same time, and
when Kidder’s interests were turned to other fields, his unpublished
manuscript and all of his information were turned over to Howard.
The latter is still actively engaged in the study.
From the letters, photographs, and actual specimens sent to Mr.
Bushnell and to the writer, following the publication of the Digest
articles and press notices of the work in Colorado, much more infor-
mation has been added to the data on the occurrence of the eastern
type. This work is still being continued, and a tabulation of the
results and a consideration of their significance will be incorporated in
a larger and more comprehensive study of the subject. It is in this
connection that investigators must face the problem of whether the
generalized form indicates an earlier phase which reached its perfec-
tion in the true Folsom or whether it represents a degenerate and later
variation. Another aspect of this phase of the study is the diffusion
of the type. There is the possibility that it traveled south along the
cordillera, then swept east and north. On the other hand the two
forms may represent off shoots from an original basic type which
spread along two separate lines, one skirting the eastern slopes of the
mountains, the other moving eastward and then south.
* Howard, 1934, pp. 13-14.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COM PLEX—ROBERTS 9
Studies of distribution in the area adjacent to the Rockies are
being carried on by Dr. Renaud and several of his students. Others
are interested in the problem but are not actively engaged in the work.
In the course of his surveys Renaud noted a type of implement which,
in some districts, apparently occurs in conjunction with the Folsom
points. Because the largest and finest series of this other type to pass
under his observation was in an extensive collection at Yuma, Colo.,
he named it the Yuma type.” Yuma and Folsom points are found
together at many sites as surface material, and their association no
doubt has some significance, although just what it may be is not now
apparent. On the basis of typology Renaud considers the Yuma older
than the Folsom.” Others, notably Mr. Figgins,“ do not agree. The
age of the Yuma type has not been satisfactorily established, though
one find of a debatable nature is frequently cited as proof of the
antiquity of the form,” and another is still under discussion.” Since
neither the Folsom pit nor the Lindenmeier site yielded Yuma points,
further consideration and detailed descriptions of them are beyond
the requirements of this paper. It was deemed advisable to mention
them because the two names so frequently appear together. Persons
interested in the Yuma types will find them described in Renaud’s
papers.
The importance of the Lindenmeier site lies in the fact that for the
first time traces of an occupation level which can be assigned to a
group of Folsom men have been brought to light. Whereas prior to
the work in northern Colorado the only indications of this presumably
early hunting people were typically chipped stone points, there is now
a definite complex of associated implements. The last few years have
been marked by much loose talk and writing about the “ Folsom
Race,” the “ Folsom Culture,” and “ Folsom Man,” when actually all
that was known was the characteristic point. From a strict anthro-
pological point of view it is still incorrect to speak of ‘‘ Folsom
Culture ” because the remains so designated probably should be con-
sidered only as one aspect of a basic, widespread early hunting pattern
which may have extended across the eastern half of the continent. So
far as Folsom Man himself is concerned, he is still persona incognita.
No skeletal material that can properly be assigned to him has to date
been discovered. Recent reports of a Folsom Man in Minnesota
** Renaud, 1932 b, p. I.
TWRenaids OQh ay ps 152) 1034 by spine:
* Figgins, 1934.
~ Cook, 1031.
* Barbour and Schultz, 1932. Bell and Van Royen, 1934. Figgins, 1934.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
cannot, in the opinion of the writer, be accepted as evidence of such
a find, because published illustrations of the points found with the
human bones indicate that they are not Folsom, either of the true type
or of the widely distributed generalized form. Nor are they Yuma,
although identification of the skeleton as Folsom Man is based on the
deduction that the points are Folsom in outline and Yuma in flaking,
and hence intermediate in time and development between the two.”
In view of the status of the Yuma, as discussed in a preceding para-
graph, a form midway between it and the Folsom is not particularly
significant. The Minnesota man may represent a local aspect of the
general hunting culture of the period indicated by Folsom; he may
even be older. That is beyond the question here at issue, namely, that
present evidence does not show him to be Folsom Man.
Not only has the Lindenmeier site furnished a variety of imple-
ments for the Folsom horizon, but in addition there are numerous
stone flakes,—typical workshop debris. These occur in the deposits
with the tools and give mute but accurate evidence of much of the
technique employed in the manufacture of the implements. Further-
more, the numerous spalls, nodules, and large cores indicate that the
stone working was done on the spot. Considerable raw material was
available in the neighborhood, and this may have been one of the
attractions which led to the occupation of the site. Other items influ-
encing this choice probably were the presence of a large spring and
an abundance of game animals. The midden deposit contained quanti-
ties of cut and split bones. This material is very scrappy in its nature,
but nevertheless it has been possible to identify some of the animals
represented. Two of the species contribute support to the belief that
the Folsom complex represents an appreciable antiquity. There is also
the chance that better bone specimens will be obtained there and that
more animals will be represented, thus increasing the information on
that phase of the problem. The site holds possibilities from a geologic
point of view, and it is hoped that careful studies by a number of
specialists will give an accurate indication of the probable age of the
deposits.
Great credit is due Judge Coffin and his son for the discovery of
this site and to the Judge and his brother, Major Coffin, for their
efforts to protect it and bring it to the attention of the scientific world.
Their whole-hearted cooperation during the investigations by the
writer facilitated the work and made possible better results than would
otherwise have been attained in so short a time. A. L. Coffin assisted
** Anonymous, 1934a; 1934b. Jenks, 1934; 1935, pp. 7-II.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COM PLEX—ROBERTS II
in the digging throughout the period that the excavations were being
made. The kindness of Mr. Lindenmeier in granting permission to
work on his land is deeply appreciated.
THE LINDENMEIER SITE
The Lindenmeier site, where the specimens described in the follow-
ing pages were found, is 28 miles (45.062 km) north of Fort Collins,
Colo., and 12 miles (2.816 km) south of the Wyoming line. Specifi-
cally, it lies in sec. 27, T. 12 N., R. 69 W., sixth principal meridian.
The site is on a terrace (pl. 1, frontispiece) above the valley of an
intermittent tributary to a series of creeks which ultimately join the
South Platte River. Whether this is a part of the old terrace system
of the Platte, which is being extensively studied by geologists in the
region farther east, is still to be determined. The formation is gener-
ally called the White River. It consists of a bed of grayish clay
covered with a conglomerate composed of sand, gravel, and occasional
large boulders. The clay is a Tertiary deposit, Oligocene, with a
possible admixture of some volcanic ash. The capping conglomerate
is indeterminate in age. It may be rather old, or it may be compara-
tively recent. |
The Lindenmeier site presents an interesting geologic problem in
the question of the wearing away and building up of the terrain. The
man-made material and animal bones occur in a dark soil layer which
rests on the clay bed and underlies the conglomerate. A tentative
reconstruction of the topography at the site, based entirely upon the
writer’s interpretation of conditions and not upon observations by a
competent geologist, suggests that at one time there was a short, nar-
row valley lying between a series of conglomerate-topped ridges, a
situation comparable to that existing today at no great distance above
the archeological location. (See pl. 2, fig. 1.) The valley bottom con-
sisted of a soil layer, several inches in thickness, resting on the Oligo-
cene deposit. Here and there were small ponds or marshy places, as
indicated by the siltlike strata of dark soil in depressions in the clay
bed. The human occupants of the valley lived on top of this soil layer.
As a result of their continued presence, numerous objects associated
with their daily round of life—charcoal and ashes from their fires,
bones from the animals that supplied the meat for their meals, stone
chips from the implements that they made, broken tools and other
artifacts—were scattered over the surface. These in time became em-
bedded in the rising soil level, were subsequently buried by additional
soil layers after the people departed, and eventually were covered by
VOL. 94
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ROBERTS 13
the present overburden when sand, gravel, and boulders were swept
down into the valley from its, bordering hills. Later, water, coursing
its way down the hillsides and along the valley, cut the gully in whose
banks the midden deposit was revealed.
The present ravine is only one of several channels which have from
time to time been worn in that portion of. the terrain. Traces of other
water courses which did not cut so deeply into the valley fill are
apparent in the sides of the gully. One old channel passed directly
over the top of a portion of the layer in which most of the stone and
bone material was found. It did not wear its way down into the old
soil line but stopped a few inches above it and then began to build up.
It gradually became filled, until, so far as surface indications are con-
cerned, it was completely obliterated. The direction of the old channel
at this point had been almost at right angles to the now existing gully.
In character the former suggests a meandering stream, one which
probably continued to the lower end of the valley a mile or so east of
the mouth of the channel of today. The filling of the stream bed may
have resulted from damming by alluvial gravels washed in from one
of the side canyons near its mouth. Considerable time is probably
represented by all this action, although conditions in the West are
such that channel cutting, filling, and shifting may occur in a relatively
short period of years. Other factors indicate that the process here
could not have been extremely rapid because ridges from which some
of the valley fill was eroded have since completely disappeared, having
been weathered away in the opposite direction. This is shown by the
fact that the soil layer—the artifact-bearing stratum—topping the clay
bed is still on the upslope, where it appears along the edge of the
terrace above the broad valley to the south of the site. The complete
erosion of the ridge transformed the level from a valley bottom to
what may possibly be considered to be a terrace.
One aspect of the problem which is of interest, although it bears
only indirectly on the archeological factor, concerns the original scour-
ing of the valley bottom and removal of material down to the Oligo-
cene stratum. Whether this resulted from action by mountain glaciers,
by water from them, or from some more recent agent is one of the
many phases of the subject which geologic studies may explain.
Should it be established that the Oligocene deposit was laid bare at the
time of the great mountain glaciers, which are considered to have been
contemporaneous with the Wisconsin ice sheet, a significant inference
could be drawn, namely, that makers of the implements arrived on the
scene not long after the retreat of the ice, since evidence of their
4
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
presence occurs immediately above the eroded surface. This would
place the occupation of the locality at the beginning of the present
geologic period. Although speculation of this nature suggests inter-
esting possibilities, it must be borne in mind that it is only conjecture
and that careful examination of the deposits by specialists may result
in entirely different conclusions. The chief purpose of this suppositi-
tious reconstruction is to call attention to some of the questions raised
by conditions at the site.
Preliminary prospecting indicated that the main concentration of
archeological material occurs in the strip of land lying between the
present gully and the edge of the terrace (fig. 1). The area is approxi-
mately 250 yards (228.6 m) long by 100 yards (91.44 m) wide. The
artifact-bearing stratum varies in depth below the surface. Along the
edge of the terrace its average depth approximates 2 feet (60.96 cm),
increasing rapidly toward the bank of the gully, where it is 14 feet
(4.267 m) below the present surface at the place where most of the
digging was done. (See pl. 2, fig. 2.) It is 6 feet (1.828 m) down
from the top at the mouth of the ravine. The difference in depth
between the upper and lower ends along the bank is due not so much
to variation in the old soil line level as to the slope of the present
surface. Digging at a number of places, both along the edge of the
terrace and in the sides of the ravine, yielded stone implements and
broken animal bones. The specimens occurred in greatest numbers at
the deepest point, however, and for that reason most of the preliminary
work was restricted to that portion of the deposit. The material at
this location suggested a midden or refuse layer, whereas that from
other portions of the site was more of the nature of chance accumula-
tions. The objects, bone and stone, were found for the most part just
above the clay stratum in a layer 6 inches (15.24 cm) to I foot
(30.48 cm) in thickness (pl. 3). Some were lying flat at the line of
contact between the layers, others extended down into the top of the
clay as intrusions.
The deep level, where most of the work was done, seemingly con-
stituted the peripheral vestiges of one of the depressions in the top of
the clay bed, as mentioned in a preceding paragraph. It suggested that
the material had been deposited along the edges of a shallow pond or
a marshy spot. The main portion of the old depression was washed
away when the present ravine was formed. A wedge-shaped excava-
tion was driven into the bank following along the top of the clay bed.
Because of the large amount of overburden to be removed, the neces-
sity for extremely careful digging, and the short time available for
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 15
the investigations, only a small area was uncovered. It measured 53
feet (16.154 m) along the ravine, extended into the bank 38 feet
(11.582 m) on one side and 26 feet 6 inches (8.077 m) on the other.
In view of the small size of the excavation the number of specimens
obtained was gratifying both as to quantity and variety.
In the following descriptions of the various kinds of tools found at
the Lindenmeier site, only the more general features will be con-
sidered. A detailed typological study, discussions of the technique
of manufacture, and comparisons of this material with similar objects
from sites not necessarily Folsom in nature are not advisable at this
time, since further excavations are planned. Additional and more
comprehensive evidence will no doubt be available when the investiga-
tions are completed. The various kinds of stone represented by the
implements in the present group are: Chalcedony, jasper, chert,
quartzite, petrified wood, moss agate, geyserite (rare), and white
sandstone. The chipper’s debris—flakes, cores, and nodules—also ex-
hibits the same variety. The most popular “ flints ’ were chalcedony
and jasper. (The writer does not believe it necessary to go into the
question of flint and flintlike materials in the present discussion.
Where the term flint is used, it refers only to the implements, not to
the particular stone involved.) The other kinds of material found in
the region do not flake and chip as readily, nor do they permit as
high a degree of workmanship. The recent Indians inhabiting the dis-
trict made greater use of quartzite and geyserite.” The sandstone
objects from the old horizon were not cutting or penetrating imple-
ments, but rubbing and polishing stones.
POINTS
True Folsom points occur in two forms. The better known variety,
based on the first example found actually in situ at the Folsom pit,
is a thin, leaf-shaped blade. The tip is slightly rounded, and the
broadest part of the blade tends to occur between the tip and a line
across the center of the face (fig. 2, A, a, b). A typical feature is a
longitudinal groove or channel extending along each face, C, about
two-thirds of the length. These grooves produce lateral ridges par-
alleling the edges of the blade. A cross-section of the object gives a
biconcave appearance as shown in the diagram. The base is concave,
* Major Coffin has studied extensively the tools made by the different Indian
groups which inhabited the Fort Collins area at various times and has deter-
mined most of the sources for the materials used. A summary of his findings
appears in Renaud, 1931), p. 61.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the concavity varying in outline on different specimens, and there are
frequently long, sharp base points often called “ears.’’ Between the
edges of the blade and the lateral ridges produced by the central
grooves is a more or less fine marginal retouching, a secondary removal
of small flakes. Points in this group tend to be somewhat stubby, as
they are broad in proportion to the length. The second form, B, was
present in the type site but is rarely mentioned in discussions because
of the general lack of information on the subject. It is also a thin,
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Fic. 2—Two forms of the Folsom type point.
leaf-shaped blade with characteristic fluting on the faces. In contrast
with the first form, however, it is long and slender in outline and has
a tapering rather than a rounding tip. The type of base for this
second form is not known from Folsom, as the specimens found there
were broken, the butt ends being missing. Similar points from the
Lindenmeier site have concave bases. Hence it is permissible to
assume that the same was true for the specimens from the type site.
It is quite possible that some of the broken bases from Folsom were
from B form blades, although there is nothing to substantiate that
assumption.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 7,
The various features that characterize the Folsom points may be
found singly or in different combinations on specimens originating in
several sections of the country, but unless all are present on each
individual artifact it cannot be considered as a true example of the
type. Failure to observe this fact has led to some confusion and mis-
understanding. Mere concavity of the base or leaflike shape does not
constitute a Folsom point. The groove is an essential feature. Whether
grooves on both faces should be insisted upon is a debatable question,
because in at least one of the specimens from the original site it was
present on only one face. This point, or rather portion of a point, was
picked up by Mr. Howard from the dump at Folsom during the
summer of 1934. Except for the absence of the fluting on one side,
it is in all respects characteristic of the type. It is the only example
from that location which was made from quartzite, and as that mate-
rial is so difficult to work, it is possible that the groove was omitted
for that reason. One example from the B group at Folsom, which
has been pictured a number of times, seemingly has a groove on but
one side.~ As a matter of fact the specimen in question shows that it
did have a groove on each face, though one was unusually short and
most of it was lost when the butt end was broken off. Just a trace of
the upper end of the channel is to be observed. That so short a flake
was removed was due, as the specimen clearly shows, to a flaw in the
stone. This caused the flake to turn out rather close to the base instead
of farther along the face. A number of fragmentary points from the
Lindenmeier site have the channel on only one side. Most of these
appear to be implements broken and discarded before completion,
however, and for that reason are not a good criterion. In view of the
evidence from Folsom, and despite the contradictory nature of such a
statement, it may be said that a true Folsom point should be fluted on
both sides, but an otherwise typical example may occasionally have
the feature on only one side.
The rarity of perfect specimens has been commented upon in
various articles on the subject of Folsom points. A large majority con-
sists of broken examples. There was only one complete blade in the
group of 19 found at Folsom, and the proportion at other sites has
been even smaller. This may be attributed, as has frequently been
suggested, to the brittleness caused by the fluting. The removal of the
longitudinal flakes so thinned the points that they became extremely
fragile. The purpose of the grooves is not known. A number of
explanations have been made, and any or all may apply. Perhaps the
* Figgins, 1927, fig. 3.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
most logical is that they were to facilitate hafting the head to the shaft
of the spear or arrow. Other interpretations are that they were to
reduce the weight, to improve the penetrating qualities, to permit the
point to break off in the animal, to allow the head to slip out of the
fore-shaft, and to promote bleeding. It is possible that a number of
such ideas were contributing factors in the perfection of the type.
With the exception of two specimens, all the points or portions of
points found at the Lindenmeier site are of one or the other forms of
the true Folsom type. One variant is an extremely thin example which
would not have permitted the removal of such flakes (pl. 5,7; 67). In
its general outline and style of chipping it indicates a relationship to
the group, but nevertheless, it cannot be considered a Folsom point.
It probably represents a different type, because similar points have
been found at Clovis and other sites. A single example is not sufficient
for definite conclusions, but there may be some significance in the fact
that this specimen was found on top of the old soil layer—not down in
it as were most of the true forms. The other point that does not con-
form was made from a scrap flake not primarily intended for such use,
and hence was not properly shaped in the beginning (pl. 7, h; 8, h).
This object came from the deep deposit and was in association with
typical Folsom material. It is too indeterminate in character to be con-
sidered other than’an aberrant form. Furthermore, since the base
edge is chipped in a fashion suggestive of a scraper rather than a pro-
jectile point, it is possible that it was one of the former.
From the time that the Folsom type and its longitudinal grooves
first attracted attention there has been considerable discussion about
the technique employed in the removal of the long flakes. Some have
insisted that they must have been dislodged before the blades were
worked down to their characteristic shape. The writer has maintained
from the beginning, as have several others, that the major part of the
shaping constituted the initial stage, and that the long flakes were
then removed.” The final touch was the secondary chipping between
the lateral ridges and the edges.” This was suggested by the fact that
the longitudinal channels cut through the smaller cross grooves left
by the primary shaping process. Another indication was the “ hinge
fracture’ on the ends of broken specimens. This resulted from a
reverse action on the part of the flake. Instead of turning out, it
turned in and went through the blade, breaking off the tip and leaving
a smooth, rounded end on the butt. There are several examples of
* Cook, 1928, p. 40.
* Renaud, 1934b, p. 3.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 19
this in the present collection. In one instance both the tip and the butt
were found (pl. 7, /; 8,7), and another specimen exhibiting the feature
has already been described in print.”
This proof was not sufficient to convince a number of the investi-
gators; now, however, there is clear-cut evidence. The Lindenmeier
site contributed portions of flakes which came from the longitudinal
channels. The Coffins found a number of such flakes in their work,
and several were obtained during the digging by the writer. Major
Coffin expressed the belief that they were from the channels, and the
additional specimens show this to be the case. In every instance the
flakes are smooth on one side—the side that formed the groove in the
blade—and flaked on the other (pl. 4). The latter surface was part of
the face of a completely shaped point. Furthermore, fragments of
blades broken in the process of manufacture and consequently dis-
carded substantiate the conclusion. What may seem to be an excep-
tion to this procedure (although actually it is not) is occasionally
noted. Some specimens suggest that use was made of a random flake
which already had a groove on one side. With such material, all that
was required was the shaping and fluting of the other face. But the
same method was followed for the single side as in the making of a
complete point. Examples of this nature are not common, however,
The technique of removing the long flake is not definitely known,
but the scrap material from the midden gives some good clues. Both
the fragments of the points and the pieces of channel flakes indicate
that a hump was left in the center of the concavity when the base was
chipped (fig. 3, a). This formed the “seat” for the implement used
to eject the flake. That percussion, not mere pressure, was resorted to
is evidenced by the definite bulbs of percussion on the flakes and by
the reverse impressions in the bases of the points which had not been
secondarily chipped. It would be extremely difficult to strike a nubbin
as small as the “ seat ”’ with a hammerstone ; hence it seems logical to
suppose that the blow must have been an indirect one. A tool of bone
or antler probably served as a punch to transmit the impact required
to flip out the flake. Indirect percussion was employed by certain
recent Indian stone chippers in making some of their implements,”
and it may well have been part of the ancient technique. When the
groove had been obtained on one side, the nubbin was retouched, if
necessary, and the process repeated on the other side. The rechipping
of the “ seat” was no doubt partially responsible for the depth of the
** Renaud, 1934), p. 4.
™ Holmes, 1919, pp. 205-206.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
concavity and the length of the “ears.” There is nothing to show
whether the work was entirely that of a single individual or whether
two were needed. It is quite possible that one held the point with the
punch firmly seated at the proper spot on the nubbin while another
gave a quick, sharp tap on the flaking implement with a hammerstone.
This unquestionably would require skill on the part of both but prob-
ably would not be as difficult a task as though one person tried to do it
alone. Present day experts in stone chipping may be able, through
experimentation, to solve the problem of which would be the more
efficient method. In a majority of cases a single, long flake was
removed at a single blow. Occasionally the first attempt was not satis-
Fic. 3—Stages in the removal of the channel flakes and three forms of base on
Folsom points.
factory and a second try was made. Major Coffin has two flakes in his
collection which show this clearly. The first one was rather short
and very thin, the second thicker and much longer. The first fits per-
fectly into the groove in the second.
After the fluting was accomplished, the edges and base of the point
were refined by secondary chipping. This is evidenced by the fact that
those broken in the grooving process, and consequently not completed,
do not have the retouch. Occasional specimens show an additional
treatment in that the base and the edges for about one-third of the
length of the blade were smoothed. Whether this was intentional or
accidental is not known. This smoothness may have resulted from the
hafting of the stone in a wooden or bone handle, or, as one writer has
suggested, it may be due to a deliberate dulling of the edges to pre-
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 21
vent the cutting of the lashings used to fasten it to the shaft.” This
feature is present on only a small proportion of the true Folsom points
but is common on the generalized eastern forms. On an occasional
specimen, one-third to one-half the length of the blade above the base,
is a small notch in each edge. These probably were to facilitate the
fastening of the point to a shaft.
The extent to which the base was subjected to the final retouching
process determined the contour of the concavity—whether it was
curved, figure 3, d; wavy, figure 3, e; or squarish, figure 3, f. In most
of the specimens from the Lindenmeier site it is wavy, because the
bulk of the material was broken and discarded before completion,
but there are some which show entire obliteration of all traces of the
flaker “seat.’’ In his distributional and typological studies on Folsom
points Renaud worked out the percentages of base types and found
that the curved concavity predominated, although the squarish and
wavy forms were a close second.” He describes the latter as separate
base types, C-1 and C-2, but groups them together as C in his tables,
so that it is not possible to determine the number of each. Since the
squarish or C-1 form on the basis of typology is the. most highly
developed and represents the ultimate stage in the perfection of the
technique, percentages might be significant. A site with a predomi-
nance of the C-1 forms could be regarded as representing a higher
cultural level than one where the C-2 was the main form.
Most of the point specimens from the Lindenmeier site are frag-
mentary, and all but a few of the pieces are butt ends. The scarcity of
tips was puzzling at first. Consideration of the problem led to the con-
clusion that the prevalance of basal portions was due to one factor,
the replacing of damaged points. Because of their brittleness, many
were no doubt broken by hunters in the chase—snapped off in the
killing of game. The shafts of the spears or arrows, unharmed and
still serviceable, were carried back to camp and fitted with new points,
the broken pieces being tossed into the midden. The fragment remain-
ing in the shaft would naturally be the butt end; hence the numbers in
the deposit material. It may be mentioned in passing that there is
nothing to indicate whether the points were used in arrows or spears.
Present thought is that the bow and arrow was a late development in
the New World and that the older cultures employed a spear and
spear thrower. Without evidence in the matter, archeologists con-
cerned with the Folsom problem have gone on the assumption that the
points were used in a shaft hurled from a spear thrower.
* Renaud, 1934b, p. 3.
*® Renaud, 1934b, pp. 8, 9.
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Measurements for the size range of points in the present collection
are unsatisfactory because of their fragmentary nature. In his tabula-
tions on specimens studied in numerous collections, including both the
generalized and the true Folsom types, Renaud has compiled the
following figures: Length, 17 to 115 mm; width, 14 to 36 mm; thick-
ness, 3 to 14 mm.” For the true forms the range is not as great:
length, 17 to 75 mm, with a 45.41 mm average; width, 14 to 32.5 mm,
with a 21.94 mm average; thickness, 3 to 6 mm, with a 5.38 mm
average.
SCRAPERS
A large proportion of the specimens in the collection belongs to the
scraper group. There are several varieties of this type of implement,
and the tools exhibit different degrees of workmanship. Some have
as minute and careful chipping as that to be seen on the finest projec-
tile points, whereas others are extremely crude and rough, only the
minimum of effort necessary to make a usable implement having been
expended on them. Most of the scrapers belong to the curved-end
type, the so-called “thumb-nail” or “snub-nosed” form (pl. 9).
Next in order, from a numerical standpoint, are the side scrapers.
In this group are tools with straight, convex, and concave scraping
edges. There are some turtleback scrapers and a few implements
difficult to classify because they combine several features.
The “ snub-nosed ” type has a number of different subforms, “but
all are characterized by one convex, carefully chipped end. The treat-
ment of the other end and the edges, as well as of the lateral surfaces,
varies. To make such an implement, a flake of stone roughly the shape
of a trigonal pyramid was struck off from a larger core. For the
simpler form of the tool this flake was chipped along the base to pro-
duce the typical, thick, rounded end. The cutting edge then received
an additional chipping which made it very sharp (pl. 10, a, b,c). The
other end was left untouched, the bulb of percussion caused by the
blow when the flake was detached furnishing a satisfactory tip. The
side edges were not chipped, nor was anything done to the faces or
lateral surfaces. This form is triangular in cross-section. A second
subform was similar to the first except that the side edges were
worked. A still more refined implement, the third subform, was made
by removing the ridge or top edge so that the cross-section became
pentagonal instead of triangular. Some additional minor retouching
-on the lateral surfaces occasionally accompanied this feature. The
” Renaud, 1934 b, pp. 9-10.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 23
two side edges were also chipped. The removal of several long flakes
from the top produced a fourth subform, one with a quadrangular
cross-section. The latter also resulted from the removal of a single,
long, broad flake, which produced a fluting similar to that on the pro-
jectile points. On practically all of the pentagonal and quadrangular
forms the smaller end, as well as both edges, was modified by addi-
tional chipping. Rarely was the ventral surface, the bottom of the
tool and the side which came off the core, altered in any way.
A very elaborate classification could be made for the subforms of
this type of scraper by segregating the different specimens according
to the various combinations of features. For the purposes of this paper
that is not essential, but in a more detailed study such a subdivision
would be advisable, especially when the subject of comparisons 1s
considered. The “ snub-nosed’ scraper was not peculiar to this hori-
zon or locality. Forms of it are found on recent Indian sites in the
general High Plains area and elsewhere throughout the country. By
means of an elaborate typological grouping it may be possible to point
out distinctions, to determine criteria for identifying early and late
forms. Such an attempt will be deferred, however, until a larger
series from the Lindenmeier site is available. The “ snub-nosed ”
scrapers from this site vary in length from 21 to 25 mm, in breadth
at the cutting edge from 25 to 30 mm and in thickness from 4.5
to II mm.
The side scrapers exhibit considerable range in quality, degree of
finish, and the types of flakes used in their manufacture. Some are
light in weight and paperlike in their thinness. Others are thick and
heavy. Certain examples display careful dressing of the faces of the
blade as well as minute and precise chipping along the edges (pl. 11).
There are other specimens that are little more than rough flakes with
chipping along one edge or only on a portion of the edge (pl. 12). In
some cases part of the siliceous crust or outer covering of the nodule
from which the flake was struck is still present. The purposes for
which the tool was intended no doubt governed the amount of work ex-
pended in its shaping. As will be noted from the illustrations, several
of the implements combine both the convex and concave blades on a
single tool (pl. 11, g). Others have one straight edge and one convex
(pl. 15, m), or a straight and concave combination. The carefully
worked side scrapers range from 30 to 62 mm in length, 15 to 33 mm
in width, and 2 to 4 mm in thickness. The rough-flake forms vary
from 40 to 60 mm in length, 20 to 45 mm in width, and 7 to 12 mm in
thickness.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The turtleback is an interesting form of scraper (pl. 15,7, j). In
the strict sense of the word these objects are not true turtlebacks,
inasmuch as they are faceted on only one side, the other being flat or
slightly concave. This feature can be attributed to the fact that they
were made from large, thick flakes rather than from complete nodules ;
consequently, it was necessary to shape them on only one side. The
convex surface of such tools is characterized by large facets suggestive
of the back of a turtle. The edges exhibit the fine retouch typical of
most of the specimens of the entire complex. If it was not for the
latter feature, many of the turtlebacks might be considered as dis-
carded cores from which flakes had been removed to be used in making
- small implements. Or they might even be classed as blanks waiting the
specialization which would make them tools. Specimen 1, plate 15, has
a length of 53.5\ mm, a width of 49 mm, and a thickness of 18 mm.
The measurements for j, plate 15, are: length 57.5 mm, breadth 41.5
mm, and thickness 14 mm.
There is no definite knowledge about the uses to which the side
scrapers and turtlebacks were put, but their functions were no doubt
manifold. They could have served for dressing hides, for removing
flesh from bones, for cutting bones, for smoothing spear and arrow
shafts. In short, they combine in one implement the qualities of a
knife, an adze, a gouge, and an abrading or finishing tool. The scraper
in its various forms was indispensable in the daily life of the later
Indians, and this was no doubt true for the dwellers at the Linden-
meier site. The general character of the different kinds of scrapers is
well illustrated by the examples shown in the photographs; hence,
more detailed descriptions of their various peculiarities are not neces-
sary at this time.
BEVEL-EDGED TOOLS
The implements of the bevel-edged type are generally triangular in .
outline with a small, rounded tip and two chipped edges. The base is
smooth and the faces comparatively flat. These tools might well be
considered as points, although not in the sense of projectile heads
(pl. 11, b). Their characteristic feature is the beveled edges. In
making such a tool the chipping was all done from one side so that the
cutting edge slanted obliquely to the opposite face. The stone was
then turned over and the operation repeated. This produced an imple-
ment rhomboidal in cross-section, the faces constituting the width and
the edges or short sides the thickness of the blade. When viewed with
the point directed upward, the beveling is usually toward the left;
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COM PLEX——-ROBERTS 25
only a rare, sporadic example shows the reverse, with the chipping
sloping away to the right. Perhaps this constitutes a record of right-
and left-handedness in the group which made and used them. A few
specimens in the collection do not correspond to the general pointed
type, but have broad, unworked ends. Their sides, however, are
beveled in characteristic fashion. The beveled edge is not confined to
tools of this type ; it occurs, singly, on some of the side scrapers. Per-
haps the beveled points should only be considered as broken tips from
knife blades. Yet basal portions have not come to light, and it would
seem that the implements found represent the complete tool. They
would serve well in the capacity of a knife, particularly in the skinning
of an animal, where the cutting motion was toward the user. Those
with the broad, unchipped ends would not do for such a purpose and
must have been employed as a variety of scraper. The triangular
examples could also be used as reamers in enlarging holes started with
a small punch or borer.
The bevel-edged tools in this collection are not unique for North
America, but it is interesting to note that the form occurred in the
Folsom horizon. Henry B. Collins, Jr., has examples that he found in
Alaska.” Kidder obtained a number of knife blades in his work at
Pecos which exhibit the feature.” There are examples from late
Plains sites, and they are fairly numerous in certain districts in Ohio,
Alabama, Tennessee, and Georgia.” These forms are more definite
in their shaping, however, and are presumably of a much later date.
The triangular forms of the bevel-edged tool found at the Linden-
meier site range from 25 to 30 mm in length, 26 to 32 mm in width,
and 4 to 6 mm in thickness. The flat-ended forms are from 27 to
40 mm in length, 29 to 33 mm in width, and from 6 to 8 mm in
thickness.
GRAVERS
‘ b
The tools given the designation “gravers”’ constitute one of the
most interesting groups in the whole collection (pl. 13). This is due
not so much to the actual nature of the specimens themselves as to
their indication that some form of the engraver’s art was practiced
by the makers of the Folsom points. No objects exhibiting such handi-
work were found, but the character of the implements suggests that
further work may uncover pieces of bone or other material, similarly
resistant to the agents of decay, upon which designs were scratched.
* Collins, 1931, 1932.
” Kidder, 1932, pp. 30-34.
* Fowke, 1806, pp. 160-161, 177-178. Wilson, 1899, pp. 931-934.
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The later Indian tribes employed the engraver’s art extensively, al-
though it never reached a high degree of excellence north of Mexico,
and it is not unreasonable to suppose that it was one of the cultural
features in earlier periods. Other peoples in comparable stages of
development are known to have responded to the creative urge by
drawing with stone on bone, and it is not assuming too much to con-
cede the ability for delineation to such skilled chippers of “ flint” as
the Lindenmeier group, particularly since there was so abundant a
supply of stone and bone ready at hand.
The simplest and most numerous gravers consist of fortuitous flakes
which were modified only to the extent of chipping a small, sharp
point on one side or end (pl. 13, a-g). These short, needlelike points
are superficially similar to those commonly classed as drills or borers.
They differ, however, in that one face is flat, while the other has
beveled edges and a chisellike tip. The usual drill] points are chipped
on all sides. Furthermore, on several of the present examples small,
almost microscopic, flakes have been broken away from the point. The
appearance of this feature is such as to suggest that it was caused by
a scratching or gouging movement of the implement rather than by a
rotary twist such as is used in drilling. On only one of the tools in
this group is the point long enough to have functioned as an awl. A
hole could be punched through a thin hide with it, but its shape is not
adapted to even the slight twisting motion ordinarily accompanying
such a procedure. The gravers in this group are from 20 to 44 mm
long, 18 to 28 mm wide, and 2.5: to 3 mm thick. The points are con-
sistently from 1.5 to 2 mm long and 1 to 1.5' mm wide at the base.
Some of the gravers are more definitely shaped than the scrap-flake
series just described. (See pl. 13, h-j.) They were also made from
flakes, but the points are broader, more elongated, have a definite
bevel on the tip, and exhibit superior workmanship. The chipping is
not confined to the actual point but extends along the edges. The
finest specimen in this group is /, plate 13. The tool was made froma
flake, but the entire stone was chipped to obtain the desired shape for
the implement. Both faces, the lateral surfaces, and the ends received
careful attention from the maker. In addition there is a fine marginal
retouch along two edges and around the narrow end. The tip of the
latter has a pronounced bevel. The entire object is suggestive of
modern tools used in lathe work. Perhaps this particular implement
should be classed as a chisel rather than a graver, yet it would have
functioned well in the latter capacity. As a matter of fact, there is a
certain over-lapping of meaning in the terms “ chisel” and “ graver,”
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 27
and in the present preliminary classification fine distinctions are not
essential. The more definitely shaped gravers are from 32 to 38 mm
long, 16 to 29 mm wide, and 5 to g mm thick. The points are from
g to 10 mm long.
Several combination tools were found (pl. 13, k-m). These incor-
porate the qualities of the scraper and the graver in a single imple-
ment. One typical “snub-nosed” scraper (pl. 13, k) has a small
sharp-tipped graver point at one end of the convex scraper edge.
There is a second graver midway along one lateral edge. With these
two points the implement could have functioned as an instrument for
drawing parallel lines or for making circles. The point at the end of
the tool could have been used for any purpose that the single, simple
gravers served. The opposite lateral edge is a good concave side-
scraper. With a tool of this type the artisan could perform a number
of operations without changing implements. This specimen has a
length of 38 mm, breadth of 28 mm, and a thickness of 6.5 mm. The
graver points are 2 and 1 mm long and 2 and 1.5 mm broad at
the base.
The two specimens / and m, plate 13, are combination gravers and
sidescrapers. The scraper features are concave and convex. One of
the artifacts has two graver points, in this case on opposite sides,
whereas the other has only one. The latter, however, is one of the
most precisely chipped points in the entire collection. These imple-
ments are 39 and 42 mm long, 22 and 22.5 mm wide, 3.5 and 4.5 mm
thick. The single point on the one is 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm broad
at the base. The points on the other are 1.5 and 2 mm long and 1 mm
wide at their bases.
KNIVES
There are a number of specimens which may be classed under the
heading of knives. The best examples are carefully chipped blades
which exhibit typical Folsom characteristics in their fluted faces and
the marginal retouch along the edges. Their ends, however, are
rounded, and the sides tend to be parallel rather than bulging or
tapering as in the case of the points (pl. 7, m,n). The complete speci-
men is 51 mm long, 23 mm wide, and 4 mm thick. The broken one is
25 mm wide and 3 mm thick.
The channel flakes from typical Folsom points were not always
discarded. Several examples show that they were used as knives.
Close inspection of the edges reveals minute retouching, which per-
fected the cutting qualities of the stone and made a serviceable tool
from one of the by-products of the process of point manufacture.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
There is extreme variation in the length of these objects. This may be
attributed to their thinness and liability to breakage. Specimens range
from 23 to 46 mm in length, 13 to 17 mm in width, and 1.5 to 2 mm
in thickness.
A crude, yet efficient implement was the flakeknife (pl. 14, a-e).
Tools of this type were made from large, ribbonlike fragments of
stone modified only to the extent of chipping along the edges. On
some of these implements the chipping is large and irregular. On
others it is as minute and precise as could be desired. Both concave
and convex edges are present in the series, occuring either singly or
in combination on the same implement. Study of such flakes suggests
that they were first employed as struck off the nodule, the razor-keen
edge of the stone being ideal for cutting purposes. Then as the edge
became nicked and dulled through use, it was touched up with the
flaking tool until, eventually, the whole edge was chipped. Because of
their rough, unfinished nature, implements of this type have received
scant notice in American archeology and, if mentioned at all, have fre-
quently been dismissed with the explanation that they were rejects,
scrap “ flints”’ tossed aside because they were not good enough to
work into finished tools. This certainly was not true of the present
group, as the objects obviously are implements. They would readily
function for cutting chunks of meat for the stew-pot or even for the
skinning of an animal. The length of the specimens in this group
varies from 49 mm to 88 mm, the breadth from 15 to 36 mm, and the
thickness from 4.5 to Io mm.
A second group of flakeknives consists of a border-line series of
larger implements which could serve either as knives or scrapers and
which could be included in one or the other category with equal
justification (pl. 14, f-7). The main reason for listing them as knives
is that most of them have a peculiar twist to the flake which makes
them more adaptable for cutting purposes than for scraping. These
implements, as mentioned also in the discussion of other types, no
doubt served a variety of purposes, and a hard and fast classification
of the form is out of the question. The group ranges in length from
53 to 111 mm, in breadth from 38 to 74 mm, and in thickness from
8 to 10mm.
BLADES AND CHOPPERS
Included in the collection are leaf-shaped blades and several large
points which appear to be ends broken from such blades (pl. 15,
a-h, k). The blades are reminiscent of the so-called blanks which
represent the intermediate stage between the original nodule and the
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 29
completed implements. Ordinarily, among the later Indians, the
specialization of the blanks was not undertaken at the quarry where
they were roughed out. Instead they were taken home and then per-
fected as time permitted. At the Lindenmeier site, however, the proc-
ess was probably carried through from start to finish on the spot
because the material was right at hand. The present specimens are
not true blanks despite their close resemblance to those forms. They
are actual implements. This is shown by the careful secondary chip-
ping along the edges. Such blades may be considered as combination
knives and scrapers. Whether the broken ends should simply be
regarded as such or whether they should be classed as scrapers is a
difficult question to answer. Primarily they are portions from larger
blades, but they also served as implements in their present state.
The smooth-fractured surfaces on the ends of several examples have
minute facets, the result of chipping along their edges. In some cases
this appears to be the result of use. On others the removal of the
tiny flakes was unquestionably intentional. Points of this type, al-
though only a portion of the original tool, would be serviceable as
knives or scrapers. The ends are from 32.5 to 50 mm long, 39 to
48 mm wide at the base, and 7.5 to 9 mm thick. The blades measure
52 to 88 mm in length, 28 to 41 mm in width, and 7.5 to Io mm
in thickness.
The class of implements tentatively called choppers might well be
considered variations of tools generally known as hand axes and rough
celts (pl. 15, 7, m). Because they do not answer in many respects to
the usual definitions of such tools and since they obviously were for
the same purpose, despite their difference in form, it is thought less
confusing to group them together under the designation of choppers.
Such tools would have been efficient in splitting and hacking bones.
That some such implement was employed is indicated by the bone
fragments. One of the examples pictured (pl. 15, 7) was made from
a chalcedony nodule and is one of the few true “core” specimens
found at the site. It must have been made definitely for this purpose,
as the flakes removed in shaping it were not large enough to have
served in the manufacture of other tools. Although the main chipping
is large, there is a fine retouch on portions of the edges. The broad
end of the tool is well adapted for grasping, and the smooth, flat base
would protect the palm of the hand from injury. This implement is
86 mm long, 61 mm broad, and 15 mm thick. The second specimen
(pl. 15, m) is a pseudo-core; it is the core of a large flake, not that
of a complete nodule. In its general shape it strongly suggests the
3
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
adze or celt of the later Indians. The workmanship is cruder, how-
ever and although it may be an example of the prototype of such
tools, it will be considered here as a chopper. Little effort was ex-
pended on this implement. The chipping is confined to the one chisel-
like end. The base is rough, some of the edges being sharp enough to
cut the palm of the hand holding it. It would need to be wrapped in a
piece of buckskin or a similar substance to prevent slipping and for
the comfort of the user. The stone is 74 mm long, 40 mm broad, and
21 mm thick. There are no marks on either of these specimens to
indicate that they might have been hafted in some kind of handle.
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS
The pieces of sandstone in the collection cannot be assigned to any
definite class of implements, yet all show signs of use. There is no
material of this nature in the immediate neighborhood, and the stones
must have been carried in for a particular purpose. Two of them,
although irregular in form, have a slight groove along one side. The
surface of the stone in the grooves is rubbed as though the objects
might have served as shaft polishers (pl. 16, a, b). They are not
typical of the implements generally called shaft polishers, however.
One stone is flat, roughly oval in outline, and has a shallow concavity
in one face (pl. 16, c). Traces of red pigment still adhering to the
stone suggests that it functioned as a pigment bowl. It does not seem
likely that this was a mortar for grinding paint, as it shows no effects
of a pestle. It was merely a palette. One irregularly shaped stone has
a smooth surface on one side, which indicates that it served as a
rubbing stone (pl. 16, ¢). Another was shaped, but there is nothing
to suggest what its purpose may have been (pl. 16, d). One example
is flat with one curved edge. The specimen obviously is not complete,
and it may be the remaining portion of a lid or cover for some con-
tainer. The curved outer edge has a series of facets where flakes were
knocked off in the shaping process (pl. 16, f). The material is soft
and could easily have been ground into the desired form but, in accord
with the prevailing technique of the horizon, the flaking process was
employed.
A number of pieces of hematite were recovered from the deposits.
The surfaces of all of them are smooth and striated from rubbing.
This is a good indication that they supplied pigment material, a factor
which correlates with the presence of the sandstone object suggestive
of a pigment bowl. Hematite in its various forms was extensively
used by the later Indians for making implements, ornaments, and
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX——ROBERTS 31
small objects whose purpose is unknown. It also served as a source
for paint, the compact red, earthy varieties known as red chalk and the
pulverulent red ocher being especially popular for this purpose. Pow-
dered hematite was mixed with grease or saliva and then applied to the
object to be painted. It was used for facial decoration, for coloring
skins and hides, for painting spears, arrows, shields, skin tents, and
other objects which the Indian desired to embellish. The finding of
the material at the Lindenmeier site is good evidence that the makers
of the Folsom points were also users of red paint. None of the frag-
ments indicate that they were shaped to serve as ornaments, nor are
they of the problematical object type.
Several nodules with battered ends were found, and there is one flat
stone of granite, roughly circular in outline but with one flattened
edge, which is broken away along one side as though from blows.
These objects no doubt served as hammers. They could be employed
in knocking flakes off large nodules, for cracking bones, and in other
capacities where a striking implement would be required.: The flat
granite specimen has one convex, smooth side, which suggests that it
also may have served as a rubbing stone (pl. 16, g).
There are a number of bones in the collection which, although they
are only chance scraps, indicate that they could have served as tools.
Each of these objects has a tapering, blunt-pointed end which shows
some signs of wear. They may have functioned as punches or awls,
but because they are not definitely prepared implements and do not
exhibit pronounced signs of usage, they will be regarded only as for-
tuitous tools at this time. When more evidence is available, it may
develop that split bones with such ends actually should be classed as a
type of implement. For the present, definite conclusions will be held
in abeyance.
IDENTIFICATION OF BONES
Owing to the scrappy nature of most of the bone material recovered,
it has not been possible to identify all of the animals represented.
Some of the fragments are from small mammals, but most of them
are bison. Part of the latter material, portions of jaws and a good
series of teeth, was referred to Director J. D. Figgins, of the Colo-
rado Museum of Natural History, who has made a specialty of the
study of bison remains. He reports that the bison found at the original
Folsom site, Stelabison occidentalis taylori and Bison oliverhayi,* are
“ Figgins, 1933 b.
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
represented in the material from the Lindenmeier site. In this con-
nection he wrote:
There was no trouble identifying the material not too badly damaged. We
have the types of all the bison we have described, in addition to many jaws and
separate teeth, so that it was merely a matter of comparison and measurement.
You may be assured of the accuracy of the identifications, as your specimens
check, in every respect, with our Folsom, New Mexico, types. I entertain no
slightest doubt that your material is typical of the two Folsom races.™
The occurrence of the same species of bison at the two sites is of
particular interest and serves to tie them to the same general horizon.
The full significance of the material, however, is still to be determined.
The bison with which the Folsom artifacts are associated were larger
than the modern species and had more massive, less sharply curved
horns.
Other bones, identified by Dr. Remington Kellogg, assistant cura-
tor, division of mammals, United States National Museum, are from
the fox (Vulpero velox), the wolf (Canis nubiltus), and the rabbit
(Lepus townsendii companius). Unfortunately, none of these throws
any light on the question of the age of the site, as it is not possible to
differentiate between the Pleistocene and present-day forms. It is
interesting, though, to have this addition to the fauna of the Folsom
horizon.
SUMMARY
At the Lindenmeier site in northern Colorado is the first occupation
level yet found which can be definitely correlated with the makers of
the now well-known Folsom points. Distinct traces of a former camp-
site and workshop are present at this location. Midden deposits have
yielded a series of implements actually associated in situ with typical
Folsom points. Similar tools have been found at various surface
sites, but this is the first evidence to demonstrate that they belonged
to the Folsom complex. In addition to the assortment of artifacts,
there are flakes, spalls, and nodules, indicating that the implements
were made on the spot. Furthermore, this chipper’s debris gives good
clues to some of the methods used in shaping the tools. The artifacts
in the collection show that the lithic component in the local culture
pattern was primarily a flake industry, only a few implements of the
core type being found. Cut, broken, and split animal bones from the
deposits have been identified as being from bison, fox, wolf, and
rabbit. The bison remains indicate that those animals belonged to the
same extinct species as those found at the original Folsom quarry.
This is a significant link between the two sites.
** Letter from Mr. Figgins to the writer, Feb. 28, 1935.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VoL. 94, No. 4
A FOLSOM COMPLEX
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON INVESTIGATIONS AT THE LINDENMEIER
SitE IN NORTHERN COLORADO
By FRANK H. H. ROBERTS, JR.
ERRATA
On page 32, paragraph 3, lines 3 and 4 should read as follows:
the fox (Vulpes velox), the wolf (Canis nubilus), and the rabbit
(Lepus townsendii campanius). Unfortunately, none of these throws
@ Wee) few
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COMPLEX—ROBERTS 33
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1934 b. New knowledge about ancient Americans. Lit. Dig., p. 18, Oct. 17.
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1935. The spread of Aboriginal Man to North America. Geogr. Rev.,
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Bargour, E. H., and ScHuttz, C. B.
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BeaucHamp, W. M.
1897. Aboriginal chipped stone implements of New York. Bull. New York
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Bett, E. H., and Van Royen, W.
1934. An evaluation of recent Nebraska finds sometimes attributed to the
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1926. Archeology of Mississippi; Mississippi Geological Survey. University
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of Mankind. Nat. Hist., Journ. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 27,
no. 3, pp. 240-247, May.
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1931. More evidence of the “ Folsom-Culture”’ race. Sci. Amer., vol. 144,
pp. 102-103, February.
Ficeins, J. D.
1927. The antiquity of Man in America. Nat. Hist., Journ. Amer. Mus.
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1931. An additional discovery of the association of a “ Folsom” artifact
and fossil mammal remains. Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist.,
vol. 10, no. 4, Sept. 26.
1933 a. A further contribution to the antiquity of Man in America. Proc.
: Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 12, no. 2, August I.
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1933 b. The bison of the western area of the Mississippi Basin. Proc.
Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 12, no. 4, Dec. 5.
1934. Folsom and Yuma artifacts. Proc. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 13,
no. 2, Dec. 20.
FowKE, GERARD.
1896. Stone art. 13th Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp. 47-178.
HarrinctTon, M. R.
1933. Gypsum Cave, Nevada. Southwest Mus. Pap., no. 8. Los Angeles.
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no. 2, Oct. 20.
Hoitmes, W. H.
1919. Handbook of aboriginal American antiquities, pt. 1, Introductory, the
lithic industries. Bull. 60, Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
Howarp, E. B.
1932. Caves along the slopes of the Guadalupe Mountains. Bull. Texas
Archeol. and Paleont. Soc., no. 4, pp. 7-19.
1933. Association of artifacts with mammoth and bison in eastern New
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1934. Grooved spearpoints. The Pennsylvania Archeologist, Bull. Soc.
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Jenks, A. E.
1934. The discovery of an ancient Minnesota maker of Yuma and Folsom
flints. Science, n. s., vol. 80, p. 205, Aug. 31.
1935. Recent discoveries in Minnesota prehistory. Minnesota History, a
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1932. The artifacts of Pecos. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition, No. 6.
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1928. L’antiquité de l’-homme dans L’Amerique du Nord. L’Anthropologie,
vol. 38, pp. 23-49.
1931 a. Prehistoric flaked points from Colorado and neighboring districts.
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1931 b. Archeological survey of eastern Colorado. Univ. Denver Dep.
Anthrop. June.
1932 a. Archeological survey of eastern Colorado. (Second Report) Univ.
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1932 b. Yuma and Folsom artifacts (new material). Proc. Colorado Mus.
Nat. Hist., vol. 11, no. 2, November 19.
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1932. Univ. Denver Dep. Anthrop. March. (Chapter 5, pp. 39-40,
for Yuma and Folsom points.)
1934a. Archeological survey of western Nebraska. Summer 1933. Univ.
Denver Dep. Anthrop. May. (Chapter 5, pp. 38-40, for Yuma
and Folsom points.)
1934 b. The first thousand Yuma-Folsom artifacts. Univ. Denver Dep.
Anthrop. October.
NO. 4 A FOLSOM COM PLEX—ROBERTS 35
Scuut7z, C. B.
1932. Association of artifacts and extinct mammals in Nebraska. Bull. 33,
Nebraska State Mus., vol. 1, November.
SPENCER, LILIAN W.
1935. The first Americans, Folsom Man—? New Mexico, the State Maga-
zine of National Interest, vol. 13, no. I, pp. 23-24, 40-42, January.
Santa Fe.
THONE, FRANK.
1929. Did earliest American hunt sloth? Science News Letter, vol. 16, no.
445, pp. 237-239, October.
TurustTon, G. P.
1890. The antiquities of Tennessee and the adjacent states and the state
of aboriginal society in the scale of civilization represented by
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Cincinnati.
Witson, THOMAS.
1899. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives of prehistoric times. Rep.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 1807, pp. 811-988.
PR
‘ hed A }
AA
MS iy
ee
“ies
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOTES 4 NOGA wy lene
1, RAVINE IN WHICH MAIN DEPOSIT WAS FOUND
2. DEEP PIT AT THE BEGINNING OF INVESTIGATIONS
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 4, PL. 3
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2. BONES AND ‘FLINT’ IN SITU IN DEPOSIT
Arrow points to implement.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94 NUMBER 5
WAVE LENGTHS OF RADIATION IN THE VISIBLE
SPECTRUM INHIBITING THE GERMINATION
OF ChE SENSVE LETTUCE SEED
BY
LEWIS H. FLINT
Division of Seed Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture
AND
E. D. McALISTER
Division of Radiation and Organisms,
Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3334)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 24, 1935
ane | oa
The Lord Battimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
WAVE LENGTHS OF RADIATION IN THE VISIBLE
SPECTRUM INHIBITING THE GERMINATION
OF LIGHT-SENSITIVE LETTUCE SEED
By LEWIS H. FLINT
Division of Seed Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture
AND
E. D. McALISTER
Division of Radiation and Organisms,
Smithsonian Institution
INTRODUCTION
In studies of the light-sensitivity of “ dormant ” lettuce seed previ-
ously reported (3)* it was noted that radiation of the longer wave
lengths of visible light, characterizing the colors yellow, orange, and
red, promoted germination, whereas radiation of the shorter wave
lengths of visible light, characterizing the colors violet, blue, and green,
inhibited germination. The material appeared to be unusually well
adapted to the study of response to radiation, and steps were taken
to establish the relative effectiveness of radiation of various wave
lengths with respect to the germination of the seed.
While these studies were in progress, Johnston (6) at the Smith-
sonian Institution reported the results of a careful series of measure-
ments of phototropic response of the etiolated oat coleoptile, which
emphasized the fact that the shorter wave lengths of visible light were
responsible for such bending. He interpreted this activity as due to
an inhibitory effect of the shorter wave lengths upon the cells exposed
to such radiation.
On account of the obvious analogy between the results obtained
with the shorter wave lengths of light in respect to inhibition in
germination and in phototropism the facilities of the two research
divisions were combined in the furtherance of the germination study,
the cooperative investigation leading to the results here presented.
*Numbers in parentheses refer to list of literature cited, at the end of this
paper.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 5
to
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
With respect to light and germination three classes of seeds have
been recognized for many years: (1) seeds germinating equally well
in light or darkness, (2) seeds whose germination is hindered by light,
and (3) seeds whose germination is favored by light. This classifica-
tion has emphasized the variety of the responses that may occur and
has proved satisfactorily descriptive for studies involving sunlight
or other white light.
In 1883 Cieslar (2) reported with respect to certain seeds that
yellow light favored germination, whereas violet light retarded it and
rendered them appreciably dormant. This varying response to differ-
ent wave lengths of light made it evident that in sunlight or other
white light certain components were acting to promote germination,
while certain other components were acting to retard it. Upon the rela-
tive effectiveness of these two groups of components, either through
the radiant energies involved or through the particular sensitivity of
the seed, one might presume to depend the gross effect of the white
light with respect to germination. From the more technical standpoint,
therefore, there were but two classes of seeds with respect to germina-
tion: (1) those whose germination was not influenced by light, and
(2) those whose germination was influenced by light. Seeds of the
latter class were designated “ light-sensitive seeds,” as contrasted with
the widely occurring seeds of the class which germinate equally well
in light and in darkness. The present considerations are confined to
light-sensitive seeds.
Light-sensitivity as reported by Cieslar was limited for the most
part to small seeds without reserve food materials. In the seeds of
Poa nemoralis, Agrostis stolonifera, and Nicotiana macrophylla ger-
mination was reported as favored by white light, whereas the germina-
tion of seeds of Viscum album was reported as hindered by white
light. In large measure the researches on light and germination by
various workers in subsequent years have been concerned with the
extension of these respective lists. In this respect it is to be noted
that sensitivity to light is now generally recognized as a widely oc-
curring characteristic of seeds.
The early distinction between the effect of “yellow” light and
“violet” light gained precision through subsequent researches, and
one finds in Molisch (g) the statement that yellow to red light pro-
motes germination, whereas violet, blue, or green light inhibits ger-
mination. This information, however, has not been widely appreciated,
and the more recent studies of light in relation to germination, such
NO. 5 IRRADIATED LETTUCE SEED—FLINT AND McALISTER 3
as those of Gardner (4), Lehmann (7), Maier (8), Nathammer (10)
and Shuck (11), have concerned themselves for the most part with
white light as a quantitative factor in germination.
Wholly unaware of the foregoing background of researches by
German workers in this field, the senior author discovered that so-
called “ dormant ”’ lettuce seed would germinate readily in white light,
and further, that yellow, orange, or red light promoted this germina-
tion, whereas violet, blue, or green light inhibited it. It now appears
that the germination response to radiation of specific wave lengths
noted for dormant lettuce seed represents types of reactions of wide
occurrence among seeds. This fact suggests that the further study
of such responses may be warranted as promising results of both prac-
tical and theoretical significance in relation to germination and pos-
sibly also in relation to other aspects of growth. The results obtained
by Flint (3) with green Wratten filters indicated that color alone was
not a safe criterion to use in the interpretation of results obtained with
filters, thus directing attention to their wave-length transmission.
METHODS
The principal line of attack in this investigation involved the use
of a spectrum, and to a large extent the work comprised successive im-
provements in the technique of utilizing the spectrum to the greatest
PRISM
ADJUSTABLE SLUT
CONDENSER LENS
Fic. 1—Schematic drawing of the apparatus used in the study of spectral light
in relation to germination.
advantage in relation to germination. The set-up as finally elaborated
(see fig. 1) consisted of a fixed light source, a condenser lens con-
centrating light upon an adjustable slit, an achromatic lens, a prism,
and a silvered mirror. A light-proof house surrounded the set-up,
with a partition at the slit (not shown in the figure). With this set-up,
using a single filament 1,000 lumen 6.6 ampere Mazda street-lighting
bulb as a light source, a spectrum was obtained which was about 1 foot
long in the visible range.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
For exposures of the material in the spectrum special boxes 10 x
4x 1inches were made of brass and provided with parallel center
plates of monel metal about 4 x 1 inches, spaced at 0.4 inch. Two such
boxes placed end to end thus more than filled the visible spectrum, and
each of the 48 compartments was subjected to a band of radiation
ranging in width from the order of 50 A in the low violet to that of
200 A in the high red. The spectrum and boxes were provided with
a secondary light-proof housing, in which, at an elevation of about
1 foot, were installed two 20-inch milk-glass lumiline lights wrapped
in red cellophane having no appreciable transmission for wave lengths
shorter than 6000 A. These lights were so arranged that in conjunc-
tion with end-mirrors no shadows were cast in any compartment of
the boxes. The intensity of illumination was regulated by a rheostat.
The focal plane of the spectrum obtained was located by inserting
a plate of didymium glass between the condenser lens and the slit.
The sharp absorption lines of didymium also provided a convenient
means of establishing the wave lengths of all regions of the visible
spectrum. Wave lengths in the near ultraviolet region were established
by substituting a mercury arc as a light source and using uranium glass
to pick up through fluorescence the lines characteristic of mercury.
Wave lengths in the infrared region were established by following the
absorption characteristics of water vapor with a thermopile. The
radiation energies throughout the entire spectrum were established
by means of a thermocouple.
The procedure in each experiment was as follows. Two boxes
were placed in the spectrum and half filled with tap water, which
served as the medium of germination. Dormant or light-sensitive
lettuce seeds were then scattered into the compartments, surface ten-
sion bringing about a fairly uniform distribution of the seeds over
the available water surface. About 100 seeds could be conveniently
accommodated in each compartment.
After 24 hours presoaking the seeds were given exposures of spec-
tral light, of red lumiline light, or of both lights, depending upon the
particular objective. The red lumiline light, by suitable modification
of the duration or intensity of the exposure, was used for the most
part to effect a 50 percent germination of the seeds independent of the
spectral light—a feature ordinarily offering some difficulty, but en-
tirely feasible with the material at hand, as had been attested by tables
2 and 3 of Flint’s paper (3). Upon this base the nature and extent
of any promoting or inhibiting influence of the spectral light was
registered as a departure. After 24 hours the boxes were removed,
NO. 5 IRRADIATED LETTUCE SEED—FLINT AND McALISTER 5
and the seeds in each compartment were transferred immediately to
numbered petri dishes, placed in a refrigerator at 3° C., and exposed
to blue light (to prevent further germination), where they were kept
until germination counts could be made.
In plotting the germination percentages against radiation the wave
length falling on the median line of each compartment was taken as
the wave length for the seeds of that compartment.
In plotting the inhibitory influence in the violet-blue-green region
as corrected for energies involved, the curves were inverted to facili-
tate subsequent comparison with other data.
The transmission curves of the Wratten filters and of the ether
extracts of lettuce seeds were made in the conventional manner with
a double monochromator and a thermocouple.
RESULTS
In the experiments of Flint (3) two green Wratten filters were
found to transmit light that promoted germination, and Io green
Wratten filters were found to transmit light that inhibited germina-
tion. The spectral transmission of all the green Wratten filters was
studied, and the energy transmission curves were obtained by mul-
tiplying the percentage transmission by the energy radiated from a
Mazda lamp at each wave length. The energy radiated by the lamp at
each wave length was obtained from its known spectral energy curve.
These energy values were used in conjunction with the inverse square
law and the distances at which the respective filters (when used with
the Mazda lamp) gave equal response with a Weston photronic cell.
The energies transmitted by representative green Wratten filters are
shown in figure 2.
It is to be noted from the curves of figure 2 that the two green
filters which had been found to transmit light promoting germination
(64 and 67) transmitted more of the ultraviolet and less of the long
visible red than the green filters which had been found to transmit
light inhibiting germination (56 and 60). This fact suggested that
the promotion was associated either with a promoting influence in the
ultraviolet or with an inhibiting influence in the long red or near
infrared.
A substantial series of exposures of moist dormant lettuce seed
to various wave lengths in the ultraviolet ranging from the lower
limits of the visible spectrum to below the ultraviolet characterizing
solar radiation gave uniformly negative results, whereupon attention
was directed to the infrared regions. Earlier studies with a spectrum
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
by the senior author had given an approximate range of 5200 to
7000 A for the promoting effect, with a sharp falling off in germina-
tion in the long red. No inhibitory effect had been suspected as as-
sociated with this falling off, however, until the effort was made to
lOO pee a | jm
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8000 3000
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4000 5000
Fic. 2—Energy transmission curves of green Wratten filters. The ordinates
are relative energies transmitted at each wave length (indicated as abscissae).
Numbers 56 and 60 are typical of the green filters transmitting light that in-
hibits germination. Numbers 64 and 67 transmit light that promotes germination.
explain the physical basis for the promoting effect of the light trans-
mitted by the two aberrant green filters. The spectrum set-up previ-
ously used by the senior author had been considerably modified in these
cooperative studies to permit a more precise measurement of the wave
NO. 5 IRRADIATED LETTUCE SEED—FLINT AND McALISTER Gi
lengths to which seeds were exposed. With the apparatus and pro-
cedure described in the foregoing section such results as those given
in figure 3 were obtained in the long red region.
Such results as those presented in figure 3 established the presence
of a strong inhibitory influence in the region of 7600 A.
By applying the same methods to the violet, blue, and green regions
of the spectrum, such results as those presented in figure 4 were
obtained.
In conjunction with the foregoing experiments a study of ether
extracts of lettuce seed was carried. out. These extracts contained
oil and pigments. Definite absorption in the region 4200 A to 5200 A
was evidenced by the transmission curves. These remained bimodal,
even after appreciable oxidation had taken place, and thus appeared
suggestive in relation to the bimodal curve of inhibition given in
figure 4. Definite absorption in the region 5200 A to 7000 A was also
evidenced by the transmission curves, suggesting the presence of some
precursors of chlorophyll and allied pigments. No appreciable ab-
sorption in the region 7600 A was noted.
DISCUSSION
The discovery of a strong inhibitory influence in the region of
7600 A, although made in an effort to explain the difference in the
response to the light transmitted by certain green Wratten filters, and
quite incidental to the study of the precise nature of the curve of
inhibition in the regions characterizing violet, blue, and green light,
may well transcend in importance the original objective of the coopera-
tive studies. Since this discovery appears to offer a clearer approach
to biological problems involving light, it has been given precedence in
these considerations.
All the green Wratten filters used by Flint (3) were found to trans-
mit in the 7600 A region, but the two filters transmitting light which
promoted germination had such a low transmission in this region that
the effects of the promoting regions—the yellow, orange, and red—
predominated over the effects of the inhibiting regions—the long red,
the violet, the blue, and the green. Since many blue and violet glass,
liquid, or gelatin filters transmit in the region 7600 A, it follows that
the newly discovered inhibitory band becomes a potential source of
confusion as to the effectiveness of radiation in the more visible spec-
trum with respect to the germination of light-sensitive lettuce seed.
Moreover, since the same type of light-sensitivity has been recognized
as characterizing other seeds, this factor may well be of some general
significance with respect to light-sensitivity in seeds.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
100
80
60
40
20
6600 7000 7400 7800 8200 8600 9000
Fic. 3.—Curve of inhibition in the 7600 A region. The ordinates are per-
centage departures from expected germination values following exposure to
promoting radiation, and are corrected for differences in the energy of the
applied radiation indicated as abscissae.
100 i
80
Bola
20
1@)
4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400
Fic. 4.—Curve of inhibition in the violet-blue-green region. The ordinates
are percentage departures from expected germination values following exposure
to promoting radiation, and are corrected for differences in the energy of the
applied radiation indicated as abscissae. The maximum inhibition was arbitrarily
taken as 100.
NO. 5 IRRADIATED LETTUCE SEED—FLINT AND McALISTER 9
In connection with the later consideration of inhibitory influences
associated with wave lengths characterizing violet, blue, and green
light, it is to be noted that with both solar and Mazda radiation the
energy at 7600 A is much greater than at the shorter wave lengths of
the visible spectrum. In solar radiation there is a sharp absorption
band in the 7600 A region interpreted as due to oxygen in the sun
and water vapor in the earth’s atmosphere. Notwithstanding this ab-
sorption, however, the energy of solar radiation at this wave length
region is large. In consequence it would appear that under natural
outdoor conditions and under customary indoor experimental con-
ditions radiation of a wave length in the long red exerts a relatively
powerful inhibitory influence upon the germination of dormant lettuce
seed, although this influence is ordinarily more than counteracted by
the promoting influence in the yellow-orange-red region. The extent
to which the 7600 A region has an analogous effect upon other seeds
and upon other phases of light-sensitivity is not known at this time,
but because of the high energy and universal occurrence of the radia-
tion, its potential significance becomes one of the most intriguing
results of its discovery. Further studies of the possible effectiveness
of this region in respect to the germination of other seeds and in
respect to other phases of light-sensitivity are now in progress.
An examination of the germination responses to light of the wave
lengths indicated in figure 4 reveals that there are two maxima of
inhibition in the violet-blue-green region—a major one at 4400 A, and
a somewhat subordinate one at 4800 A. It may now be noted that
Bachmann and Bergann (1) and Johnston (6), studying the etiolated
coleoptiles of Avena sativa Culberson, obtained curves of phototropic
sensitivity having two maxima at about these same regions. The two
types of data, the one indicating an inhibitory influence of light on the
germination of seeds, the other an influence of light on the direction
- of growth of young etiolated shoots, have been brought together to
facilitate comparison in figure 5.
An examination of figure 5 reveals that within the range of experi-
mental error the two types of plant response to light show identical
critical wave lengths. Johnston (6, p. 14) and others interpret photo-
tropic response as an index of growth retardation on the theory that
the light on the exposed side of the shoot inhibits elongation, while
on the opposite unexposed side elongation is relatively uninfluenced.
The results here reported obviously tend to sustain the correctness of
this interpretation. Both of the foregoing types of plant response to
light involved etiolated structures, and further studies are in progress
relating to the types of plant response characterizing green tissues.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
In résumé, the results obtained with the Wratten filters, taken in
conjunction with the curve of violet-blue-green inhibition given by
the spectral data and with the newly discovered inhibitory influence in
the 7600 A region, make it more than ever obvious that the effects ob-
tained through the use of any color filter may not safely be interpreted
without an analysis of its spectral transmission.
The results presented in this paper indicate the general relative
effectiveness of radiation of various wave lengths in the visible spec-
trum found to inhibit the germination of light-sensitive lettuce seed.
100
60
40
20
te)
3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 S000 5200 5400
Fic. 5.—Curve of inhibition in the violet-blue-green region compared with
the curve of phototropic response of oat coleoptiles obtained by Johnston. Heavy
line represents the inhibition; dotted line the phototropic response.
Further studies designed to yield quantitative results as to the relative
effectiveness of both promoting and inhibiting radiation are now in
progress.
SUMMARY
Announcement is made of the discovery of a band in the region of
7600 A which inhibits the germination of light-sensitive lettuce seed
far more effectively at the energies characterizing both solar and
Mazda radiation (in this region) than do similar inhibitory influences
previously noted in the regions 4200 A to 5200 A.
The relative effectiveness of radiation in the violet, blue, and green
regions of the spectrum—at 4200 A to 5200 A—in inhibiting germina-
tion in light-sensitive lettuce seed is found to be the same as its relative
NO.
5 IRRADIATED LETTUCE SEED—FLINT AND McALISTER eT
effectiveness in bringing about phototropic response in etiolated col-
eoptiles of oats. Both phenomena may be represented by bimodal
curves showing critical wave lengths in the regions 4400 A and 4800 A.
10.
II.
LITERATURE CILLED
BACHMANN, FR., and BERGANN, FR.
1930. Uber die Werkigkeit von Strahlen verschiedener Wellenlange fur
die phototropische Reizung yon Avena sativa. Planta, Arch.
Wiss. Bot., vol. 10, pp. 744-755.
CiesLaAr, ADOLPH
1883. Untersuchungen tiber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Keimung
der Samen. Pp. 270-205.
Fuint, Lewis H.
1934. Light in relation to dormancy and germination in lettuce seed.
Science, vol. 80, pp. 38-40.
GARDNER, W. A.
1921. Effect of light on germination of light-sensitive seeds. Bot. Gaz.,
vol. 71, pp. 249-288.
GASSNER, G.
1915. Beitrage zur frage der Lichtkeimung. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 7,
pp. 609-661.
. JOHNSTON, Ear S.
1934. Phototropic sensitivity in relation to wave length. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., vol. 92, no. II, pp. I-17.
LEHMANN, E.
1918. Uber die minimale Belichtungzeit welche die Keimung der Samen
von Lythrum salicaria auslost. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., vol.
36, pp. 157-163.
Mater, WILLI
1933. Das keimungsphysiologische Verhalten von Phleum pratense, L.,
dem Timotheegras. Jahrb. Botanik, vol. 78, pt. 1, pp. 1-42.
Mo.tscu, Hans
1930. Pflanzenphysiologie als Theorie der Gartnerei. P. 323.
NATHAMMER, ANN.
1927. Keimungphysiologische Studien unter Hervorhebung des Licht-
keimungsproblems. Biochem. Zeitschr., vol. 185, pp. 205-215.
SHuckK, A. L.
1935. Light as a factor influencing the dormancy of lettuce seeds. Plant
Phys., vol. 10, pp. 193-196.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 6
THE ABDOMINAL MECHANISMS
OF A GRASSHOPPER
Big
R. E. SNODGRASS
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine,
U. S. Department of Agriculture
(PUBLICATION 3335)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
SEPTEMBER 25, 1935
a
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
THE ABDOMINAL MECHANISMS OF A GRASSHOPPER
By R. E. SNODGRASS
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture
CONTENTS
PAGE
TIkaniyeYahoveWkoy ole) ayes PAcacesen ioe acolo Siete ROCIO EO one Bio ROTC ERS Reo pace te I
lem(Generalustriuctine olathe abdomen ma -niceiieciiesacieeiareiels aia 2
Characteristic features of the abdomen of Acridoidea............ 3
Relationvonthe abdomen tothe thonaxeessee paces seiceerier 8
@hevabdomunmalecpicacl es saccsaers, certs s crass laiete ecco o's cleieleue here itt
AUheucby MI DAnalMOl SANSE werner tkes cameras wrote er vecetete ee ahs clete-cks, carbo le.teuane 12
ADL GV CEES es fo pane RC AERO ERAT CCR DORSET et ERR De ee ere Re 15
ies bhiemabdomimalemusculatunesemmcase cacti reece eerie 16
iMnisclesuotathesinsteseginente: pic acisisee il isloemianiciiciieieitcraee cre 16
Musclesvotmthersecond seamentsncmeen ie ocriice serricneriemeen eer 18
Mnrscleshotathe:tiirdsscome;ntamen se aernien core iceiicee 20
Misclesnotithexetehthyseomentere- creer cacti eects ier: 2
IMnsclesto® therninthesesmentascecareeen icine mace ee 26
Musclesi of the tenth sesiment: 42522; cces aa oad ene es eee 2
Muselestot the eleventh seoment 2s <i ire... s5 cc cc cleo ns seins 31
SP MCMERATISVICLSCIAITITISCLES cccceeuarainte oecamuete aise ciel saherouee ie eeekey craic) one diisve sree 31
ieee diaphragms, and the dorsal blood! vessel..0.7..- sc. - else oe isin 31
NMED HG e: PEOCEOUACHITL vr ele ecye.s tea c eve icin ceete clayey ie ss cnic le lalhe wintw dlahete x! nets 34
Nem ihe ova positor aAlG, ASSOCIALeG sSEPUICUULES «6 <2 ones. cle ws aisle © o's okies cieiee 37,
Structuresot athe oVvipositoieasnroomeee ee coe cierto 37
The female genital chamber and the spermathecal opening....... 45
Developmetit oO the OVIPOSHOL ssn ase cise sre se clow see cele © tec. 48
Oviposttionie semen cee tags icra he Rin epee shaven ne eed aan cays 54
Wilmerlithexesxternalemalermenitaliats<ctyas em a <los ct stot ecini= ciaielcve/ oie oe a-terse ie ene 61
General structure of the male genitalia of Acridoidea............. 61
Copulation, and insemination of the female..................... 71
Examples of the male genitalia of Acrididae.................... 73
Abbreviations used on the figures...............eeeeeeeeeeeeeee Fe. 86
RELEE In COST ta reps tceM Ae eres sis Ieee ete renencars ein cie Ne ie ieee ees 87
INTRODUCTION
This paper on the abdomen of Acridoidea is intended to follow
sequentially an earlier paper in the same series entitled “ The Thoracic
Mechanism of a Grasshopper’ (Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82,
no. 2, 1929). Hence it will be observed that the numerical designation
of the abdominal muscles continues from that of the thorax.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No.6
lo
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The primary object of the work here presented has been to arrive
at an understanding of the mechanisms of copulation and oviposition
in the Acrididae, which in this family present many peculiar features.
Neither of these processes, the writer believes, has been fully under-
stood or correctly described, though careful observations have been
made on the processes of copulation and egg-laying among grass-
hoppers. With the closer studies on the behavior of insects now found
necessary for economic purposes, it is becoming obvious that we must
understand more fully the structure and mechanics of the anatomical
mechanisms on which depends so much of the insect’s activities. In
addition to the functional phase of morphology, however, there is the
no less important taxonomic aspect. Hence, in the following pages
much attention is given to structures bearing on the relationships be-
tween the Acrididae, Tetrigidae, and Tridactylidae, and a brief com-
parative study of the anatomy of the external male genitalia is included,
since these structures will undoubtedly be found to contain many
characters of importance for the separation of species where other
features are not sufficient for exact determinations.
The writer follows Blatchley (1920), Walker (1922), Brues and
Melander (1932), and others in regarding the grouse locusts as
constituting a family (Tetrigidae, or Acrydidae) distinct from that
of the typical grasshoppers (Acrididae). Aside from superficial differ-
ences in such characters as the length of the pronotum, and in certain
features of the tarsi, the grouse locusts are distinguished from the
grasshoppers by the lack of the characteristic tympanal organs of the
latter, and in the totally different nature of the external male geni-
talia, which in the grasshoppers have a unique and highly standardized
type of structure that distinguishes the Acrididae from all other
Orthoptera. The tetrigids, of course, in many ways, particularly in
the general structure of the abdomen and in the structure and mecha-
nism of the female ovipositor, show their relationship with the Acridi-
dae, but this relationship is much more distant than is that of the
several acridid subfamilies with one another. Some orthopterists,
furthermore, would link the Tridactylidae with the Tetrigidae and
Acrididae, but to the writer a close association of the tridactylids with
the acridoid families seems doubtful, notwithstanding the close simi-
larity of the ovipositor in these two groups.
I. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE ABDOMEN
The morphology of the adult insect abdomen is difficult to under-
stand because of the complete suppression of the segmental appendages
in the pregenital region, and the probable union of the appendage bases
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 3
with the primitive sterna in the definitive sternal plates. The lateral
tergo-sternal muscles of the abdomen appear to have no counterparts
in the thorax, unless it is to be assumed that they represent the leg
muscles that have retained their ventral connections with the coxal
elements of the definitive sterna, but a study of larval insects seems to
indicate that the limb muscles have been lost with the suppression of
the appendages. The abdomen of the imago is so completely adapted
to its principal mechanical functions of respiration, copulation, and
oviposition that the generalized structure in this region of the body
is almost entirely obscured by secondary modifications. The acridid
abdomen is a good subject for anatomical study, but it throws no light
on the general morphology of the insect abdomen.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE ABDOMEN OF ACRIDOIDEA
The acridid abdomen consists of 11 distinct segments (fig. 1). The
enlarged first segment is firmly attached to the thorax by its dorsal
PN; IT ow IT
VIIT IXT XT Eppt
\ é Cer
\
S3 CxCz IS IS Vinstn
Fic. 1—Abdomen and base of thorax of Dissosteira carolina, female.
and ventral plates (JT, 1S), though these plates are widely separated
from each other laterally by the hind coxal cavities (C~C;). On the
sides of the first tergum are situated the tympanal organs (771)
characteristic of the Acrididae, and the first spiracles (JSp) are located
in the anterior parts of the tympanal depressions. The following
seven segmental annuli (J/-V///) are simple secondary segments
separated by ample conjunctivae that allow a considerable extension of
the abdomen, as that of the female abdomen during oviposition. The
tergal and sternal plates are united by inflected lateral membranes that
permit the respiratory movements of vertical expansion and compres-
sion. The spiracles of these segments are located in the lower margins
of the terga.
In the female the sternum of the eighth segment (fig. 1, VJ//Stn)
is the last of the series of ventral segmental plates. It is prolonged
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
beyond the tergum, and its posterior margin is reflected into the floor
of the genital chamber beneath the base of the ovipositor. In the male
(fig. 33 A) the abdomen terminates ventrally with the ninth sternum,
which is much enlarged and subdivided into a proximal sternal plate
(I1XS) anda distal sternal lobe (XSL). The terga of the ninth and
tenth segments are narrow (figs. 1, 33 A) and are united with each
other in both sexes. The tenth tergum of some species bears a pair
of small median processes, known as the furculae, projecting backward
from its posterior margin (figs. 38 A, B, 39, f). The ventral part of
the ninth segment in the female is reduced to a narrow median space
between the bases of the dorsal prongs of the ovipositor, and the venter
of the tenth segment is a small membranous area above the base of
the ovipositor. In the male the venter of the tenth segment is con-
tained in the membranous dorsal wall of the genital chamber (fig. 24 A,
X.V). The eleventh segment is the conical end piece of the body
formed of a triangular dorsal plate, the epiproct (fig. 1, Eppt), and of
two lateroventral plates, the paraprocts (Papt). Between the apices of
these plates is the anus. The appendicular cerci (Cer) arise laterally
on the base of the eleventh segment from membranous areas between
the adjoining angles of the epiproct and paraprocts. The exposed
part of the female ovipositor consists of four short, strongly sclero-
tized prongs (Ovp) projecting backward from the ventral parts of
the eighth and ninth segments. The complex copulatory apparatus of
the male (fig. 33 B) is ordinarily concealed within a genital chamber
between the terminal lobes of the eleventh segment and the upturned
lobe of the ninth sternum (fig. 24 A).
The abdomen of Tetrigidae is in general similar to that of the Acri-
didae, though it differs from the latter in several respects. The tergum
of the first segment (fig. 2 C, [T) is solidly joined to the thorax, but
the sternum (D, /S) has a flexible connection. Tympanal organs are
absent. The first spiracles (C) are contained in the first tergum, but
the other spiracles lie in membranous lateral areas of the dorsum
beneath the lower edges of the terga, though the last two on each side
(fig. 18 A) are contained in weakly developed laterotergal sclerites.
Between the spiracles and the sterna of segments JJ to VII there is on
each side a series of small laterosternal, or “ pleural,” sclerites (fig.
2 C, Ist) best developed anteriorly, where there are two sclerites in
segments JJ to J’. The terminal segments of the tetrigid abdomen,
in both the female (fig. 18 A) and the male (fig. 27 A), are essentially
the same as those of Acrididae, and the female ovipositor (fig. 18)
has little to distinguish it from the acridid ovipositor. The phallic
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN
SNODGRASS 5
organs of the male, however, are very simple in structure and in no
way resemble those of Acrididae (fig. 27 D).
The abdomen of Tridactylidae has certain features that are sug-
gestive of the tetrigid abdomen, but in many respects it is quite differ-
Fic. 2.—Relation of the abdomen to the thorax in Acrididae, Tetrigidae, and
Tridactylidae.
Pay B, Melanoplus mexicanus. C, D, Tettigidea lateralis. E, F, Rhipipteryx
iolleyi.
ent from the abdomen of either the Tetrigidae or the Acrididae. The
base of the tridactylid abdomen (fig. 2 E, F) presents characters that
are peculiar to the family, and will be described later. The first seven
pairs of spiracles lie in the lateral membranous areas of the dorsum
beneath the edges of the terga, where some of them may be contained
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
in narrow laterotergal sclerites (E, /tg). The spiracles of the eighth
segment lie in the lower parts of the tergum of this segment (fig.
19 A). The median sternal plates of segments JJ to VI or VII are
flanked by narrow laterosternites (fig. 2 E, /st) and the sterna overlap
the edges of the terga, the laterosternites being inflected. In Tridacty-
lus and Rhipipteryx a small internal vesicle opens by an external pore
(E, y) on the laterosternite of the third segment. According to Car-
pentier (personal communication) a similar anterior vesicle opens on
the laterosternite of the second segment in Rhipipteryx carbonaria.
The terminal segments of the tridactylid abdomen have many peculiar
features, as will be shown in the description of the genital organs ; but
ate aes AN3~
\ —
/
Fic. 3.—Relation of the phragmata to the segmental plates of the dorsum.
Dissosteira carolina.
A, vertical section of dorsum of metathorax just to right of median plane,
showing the antecostal sutures (acs) and phragmata (2Ph, 3Ph) marking the
true intersegmental lines; the dorsum is occupied by a wing-bearing plate, the
alinotum (AN;), and a postalar postnotum (PN;) equivalent to the acrotergite
(atg) of the alinotum. B, posterior view of the first abdominal tergum, the
lobes of the third phragma, and the right tympanal capsule.
the well-developed ovipositor of Rhipipteryx (fig. 19 A, Ovp) is
surprisingly similar to the ovipositor of Tetrigidae and Acrididae.
The male organs, on the other hand, have no resemblance whatever
to those of Acrididae or to those of Tetrigidae.
The abdominal terga of the Acrididae, except the tergum of the
first segment, are simple plates with no sutural divisions (fig. 1).
The dorsal muscles arise on each tergum some distance behind the
anterior margin (fig. to A), and the line of attachment here is marked,
particularly in the male, by a short secondary tergal ridge (tr) on
each side. True antecostae appear to be absent, since the muscles are
inserted posteriorly on the weak anterior margins of the tergal plates.
In the Tetrigidae, on the other hand, each tergum has a distinct margi-
nal antecosta. Tergal apodemes are absent, except in the ninth segment,
where, as in Dissosteira (fig. 14), there may be a pair of apodemal
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS Fi
lobes (Ap) projecting forward from the anterior margin of the tergum
for muscle attachments.
The abdominal sterna of the Acrididae resemble the terga in that
each is an undivided plate, but the sterna, as with pterygote insects
generally, are presumably coxosternal plates in composition, though
there are no styli on any of the abdominal segments. The first ab-
dominal sternum (fig. 4, 7S) is closely united with the metasternum
of the thorax by an anterior extension (ast), which appears to be
the acrosternite ; otherwise it is a simple plate. The following sterna
have each a pair of large apodemes on their anterior angles. The
apodemes of the second and eighth sterna in the female (fig. 4),
or of the second and ninth in the male (fig. 12), are simple anterior
arms; but the intervening apodemes have lateral expansions that
form distinct lateral apodemes in the more anterior segments of
the female (fig. 4, J4p) and in all the segments of the male be-
tween the second segment and the ninth (fig. 12). The lateral
apodemes give attachment to the dilator muscles of the abdomen (fig.
10 B, ile), which have their dorsal attachments ventrally on the lower
edges of the terga. The intersegmental ventral muscles of the abdomen
have their anterior attachments on the sterna some distance back of
the anterior margins of the latter (figs. 8, 10 A), but they are attached
posteriorly on the anterior margins of the sterna following. In the
male the lines of origin of these muscles are strengthened in each
segment by a well-developed transverse sternal ridge (fig. 12, s7) ;
in the female the ridges are present only on the sterna of the more
anterior segments (fig. 4). The musculature of the abdomen, and
cuticular developments related to the muscles are in general weaker
in the female than in the male.
In the Tetrigidae the median sternal plates of the abdomen appear
to correspond with the sternal plates of Acrididae since they bear the
sternal apodemes on their anterior angles. The small laterosternites
(fig. 2 C, D, Ist), therefore, are probably secondary developments in
the membranes laterad of the sterna, and in a loose sense may be
termed “ pleurites,” though there is nothing to suggest that they repre-
sent remnants of limb bases. According to Ford (1923) there are
no muscles attached on the laterosternites of Tetrigidae, but there are
groups of small lateral muscles attached dorsally in the membrane be-
fore and behind the spiracles and ventrally on the sterna. These mus-
cles are evidently dorsosternal muscles, since the region of the spir-
acles is to be regarded as a part of the dorsum. The principal lateral
muscles in Tetrigidae, as in Acrididae, are tergosternal muscles.
co
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 94!
RELATION OF THE ABDOMEN TO THE THORAX
In both the Acrididae and the Tetrigidae the tergum of the first
abdominal segment is firmly attached to the tergal and pleural sclero-
tization of the metathorax, and in Acrididae the first abdominal ster-
num is solidly joined to the metasternum. The movements of the,ab-
domen as a whole take place between the first and second segments
of the latter, and are produced by the longitudinal muscles of the first
abdominal segment attached posteriorly on the second. In the female
of Dissosteira there is one pair of very small oblique lateral muscles
between the metathorax and the first abdominal segment (fig. 9, 140).
The union of the first abdominal tergum with the metathorax in
Acrididae and Tetrigidae is formed by the greatly expanded acro-
tergite of the first abdominal tergum, which becomes a large post-
notum in the dorsum of the metathorax (fig. 2A, C, PN3;). The
postnotum is separated from the main part of the first abdominal
tergum (JT) by a prominent transverse antecostal suture (acs), which
extends across the back and downward on the sides. From this suture
there depend internally the two lobes of the third phragma (fig. 3 A,
B, 3Ph). In Dissosteira the inner margin of each phragmatal lobe is
braced posteriorly on a secondary ridge (B, wv), which is marked
externally by a short tergal suture on each side (fig. 1, v) behind
the antecostal suture. The lobes of the third phragma give attachment
to the posterior ends of the dorsal muscles of the metathorax (fig.
3 A), and thus attest that the antecostal suture (acs) through their
bases is the true (primary) intersegmental line of the dorsum be-
tween the metathorax and the first abdominal segment.
Anteriorly the postnotum is continuous (fig. 3 A, PN;) with the
inflected scutellar margin of the alinotum of the metathorax (AN>3) ;
its lateral extensions are united with the posterior (or dorsal) margins
of the metathoracic epimera (figs. 1, 2A, C, Epms). By these con-
nections of the postnotum with the dorsal and pleural sclerotic parts
of the metathorax, the lobes of the third phragma are securely braced
against the pull of the dorsal muscles attached on them (fig. 3 A). The
force of the muscles, therefore, is expended on the alinotum of the
metathorax (AN3;), which responds by an upward curvature that de-
presses the wings on the pleural fulcra. In the usual intersegmental
mechanism of secondary segmentation, in which the acrotergite is a
mere flange on the anterior margin of the tergum following, and is
separated by a conjunctival membrane from the preceding tergum, the
contraction of the longitudinal muscles produces an approximation
or overlapping of the consecutive segmental plates. The enlargement
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN——SNODGRASS 9
of the acrotergite of the first abdominal tergum, accompanied by an
obliteration of the conjunctiva behind the wing-bearing plate of the
metathorax, is clearly, therefore, a device to suppress intertergal move-
ment at this intersegmental junction.
Fic. 4.—Dorsal view of the inner surface of the skeletal plates of the meta-
thorax and abdomen of Dissosteira carolina, female; ovipositor removed ex-
posing the floor of the genital chamber, the gonopore (Gpr), and egg guide (eg).
The ventral union of the abdomen with the thorax in Acrididae is
even more complete than is the dorsal union. The sternum of the first
abdominal segment (fig. 2B, JS) forms virtually a part of the ptero-
thoracic plastron. Its acrosternite is either a broad lobe (fig. 4, ast),
or a narrow tongue (fig. 2 B, ast), but in either case it is solidly fused
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
with the metasternum in the notch between the sternellar lobes (S73).
There are no ventral muscles that extend from the thorax into the
abdomen in Acrididae, and the first ventral muscles of the abdomen
take their origin on a transverse ridge of the first abdominal sternum
at the base of the acrosternite (fig. 8, 143). This ridge, therefore, is
evidently the antecosta of the first sternum, and corresponds with the
phragma of the first tergum, that is, it marks the true intersegmental
line of the venter between the thorax and the abdomen. In the Tetrigi-
dae the sternum of the first abdominal segment (fig. 2D, 7S) has a
rounded anterior edge inserted into a wide emargination of the meta-
sternum, but it is attached to the latter by a narrow, flexible mem-
branous suture, and, therefore, does not give the abdomen a firm
ventral connection with the thorax as in Acrididae. There is no evi-
dence, therefore, that the small median area between the bases of the
metasternal apophyses (saz) in the Tetrigidae represents the acroster-
nite of the first abdominal sternum; it appears rather to be the ster-
nellum of the metathorax, which is suppressed medially in the
Acrididae.
When we turn to the Tridactylidae by way of comparison it is to
be seen that there is little similarity, either in the thoracic sclerotiza-
tion or in the basal structure of the abdomen, between this family and
the Acrididae or Tetrigidae. The pleural sclerites of the pterothorax
in the tridactylids are reduced and widely separated by membranous
areas (fig. 2E). The sterna are simple segmental plates (F, S2, S3)
entirely separated from each other. In the mesosternum the bases of
the apophyses (sa) are far apart at opposite ends of a transverse
sternacostal suture (k). The metathoracic apophyses are somewhat
more approximated, and from each a suture extends forward in the
basisternal region. These sutures in Rhipipteryx (fig. 2 F) are con-
tinuous anteriorly in a transverse arc, but in Tridactylus they remain
separate, as shown by Ander (1934). The sternellum of each ptero-
thoracic sternum is a narrow margined area behind the sternacostal
suture (k), and is not produced into lateral lobes as in Acrididae. The
first abdominal sternum (/) is entirely distinct from the metasternum.
In the relations of the base of the abdomen to the thorax the tri-
dactylids present some very unusual features. The tergum of the
first abdominal segment is much reduced and does not contain the first
spiracles (fig. 2 E, JT) ; the posterior dorsal and lateral parts of the
segment are membranous. The acrotergite (PN;) is a strongly de-
veloped though narrow sclerite on the anterior margin of the first
abdominal tergum, but it is widely separated dorsally from the wing-
bearing plate of the metathorax (AN,) by a large membranous area
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS MAL
(Mb). Laterally, however, it is connected on each side with the pos-
terior angle of the metanotum (AN;), and by a strong postalar arm
(Pa) with the lower end of the narrow metapleuron (P/;). The third
phragma (3Ph) consists of a pair of long lobes projecting posteriorly
from the antecostal suture of the first abdominal tergum through the
first and second abdominal segments. The extraordinarily long dorsal
muscles of the metathorax extending back to the third phragmatal
lobes are plainly visible through the membrane separating the post-
notum from the metathoracic alinotum.
THE ABDOMINAL SPIRACLES
The spiracles of insects, the writer assumes, belong to the dorsum.
In a generalized arthropod the limb bases lie between the dorsum and
the venter, and there is no evidence that the insect spiracles are de-
veloped on the bases of the limbs. The spiracles may be included in
the tergal sclerotization of the dorsum, or they may lie free in a
laterodorsal membrane, or again, they may be situated in small latero-
dorsal sclerites. The abdominal spiracles of Acrididae are all con-
tained in the lower parts of the tergal plates (figs. 1, 2 A); in the
Tetrigidae all but the first lie in the laterodorsal membranes below the
terga (fig. 2C); in the Tridactylidae the first two spiracles on each
side are in the laterodorsal membranes of their segments (FE), the
others are contained in small laterotergites (/tg), except the last, which
lies in the lateral part of the eighth tergum (fig. 19 A).
The abdominal spiracles of Acrididae are of the type of structure
in which the closing apparatus is at the inner end of the atrium where
the latter is joined by the spiracular trachea. They thus differ, as
abdominal spiracles usually do, from the thoracic spiracles, which are
closed by an approximation of the outer lips of the atrium.
The large first abdominal spiracles of Dissosteira, as already ob-
served, lie in the anterior walls of the tympanal capsules (figs. 1, 6 A,
g A, ISp). Each of these spiracles presents externally an oval aper-
ture, the long axis of which is somewhat oblique. The walls of the
atrium are direct inflections of the body wall. The dorsal atrial wall is
immovable and is firmly supported by a dense sclerotization of the body
wall above it; the ventral atrial wall, on the other hand, is a freely
movable plate, and a small area of the body wall below it is mem-
branous. Viewed internally (fig. 5 A), it is seen that the movable
ventral wall of the atrium (e) is produced posteriorly in a handle-
like process, or manubrium (g), on which the spiracular muscles are
inserted. The short occlusor muscle (748) takes its origin on the
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
margin of the tympanal capsule just above the spiracle ; the long slender
dilator muscle (247), together with the tensor of the tympanum (146),
arises ventrally on an inflection of the membranous body wall (fig.
g A) posterior and mesad of the hind coxa behind the small triangular
lateral sclerite of the metasternum (fig. 1, t). The occlusor muscle
closes the inner aperture of the atrium into the spiracular trachea by
bringing the inner margin of the movable plate of the ventral atrial
wall against the inner margin of the immovable dorsal wall. The
antagonistic dilator muscle counteracts against the occlusor and opens
the tracheal aperture.
The other abdominal spiracles have essentially the same structure
as the first spiracle, though they are successively smaller to the eighth,
Fic. 5.—Structure of the abdominal spiracles. Dissosteia carolina.
A, right spiracle of first segment in rim of tympanum, inner view, showing
occlusor (148) and dilator (747) muscles. B, right spiracle of eighth segment
with end of trachea, inner view, showing occlusa (osp) and dilator (disp)
muscles. C, same, trachea removed, showing tracheal entrance (¢) from atrium
and movable anterior valve (e) with manubrium (g) on which muscles are
attached.
which again is of larger size (fig. 1) ; also the obliquity of the aperture
is more pronounced in these spiracles (fig. 5 B, C), so that the movable
wall of the atrium (¢) becomes anterior, with the manubrium (gq)
directed downward, and the immovable wall (f) posterior. The short,
fan-shaped occlusor muscle of each spiracle (osp) arises on the tergal
wall behind the spiracle, and the long dilator muscle (disp) takes its
origin ventrally on the anterior part of the lateral margin of the cor-
responding segmental sternum.
THE TYMPANAL ORGANS
On the lower part of each lateral area of the first abdominal tergum
just behind the spiracle is located the large tympanal organ of Acridi-
dae (fig. 1, Tm). In Melanoplus the tympanum is contained in a
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 13
simple oval depression of the tergum (fig. 2 A), the margin of which
is interrupted ventrally, and the tympanum is thus continuous through
a narrow cleft in its frame with the membranous body wall below the
tergum. The same is true but less evident in Dissosteira (fig. 1). The
development of the organ in the nymph shows clearly that the tym-
panum is derived from a part of the laterodorsal membrane of the first
abdominal segment enclosed in a notch in the lower margin of the
tergum. In Dissosteira the tympanal depression is much deeper than
in Melanoplus and forms a large capsule-like cavity expanded within
the outer opening (fig. 6 A, «). The rear wall of the capsule is deeper
Fic. 6.—Tympanal organ of the first abdominal segment. Dissostewa carolina.
A, external view of left tympanal capsule and surrounding parts of body wall.
B, inner view of right tympanum and associated structures. C, tympanal sense
organ and its supports, inner view.
a, sclerotic tubercle of tympanum with arms (b, c) supporting the sense
organ; CpCls, cap cells of sense organ; d, pyriform sclerite of tympanum; e,
muscle process of tympanal capsule; /.Sp, first abdominal spiracle; /7, tergum
of first abdominal segment; Nv, nerve of sense organ; 3Ph, part of third
phragma; PN3, lateral part of postnotum of metathorax; SCls, sense cells;
Sco, sense rods, scolopes; SO, scolopophorous sense organ; Tm, tympanum ;
u, subtympanal lobe of metathorax; x, tympanal capsule; 146, tensor muscle of
tympanum; 147, dilator muscle of spiracle; 148, occlusor muscle of spiracle.
than the front wall, and the plane of the tympanum is, therefore,
oblique, its outer surface being directed outward and posteriorly. The
first abdominal spiracle (JSp) is situated in the anterior wall of the
tympanal capsule, and a lobe (#) at the lower end of the metathoracic
epimeron (fig. 1) forms the lower lip of the outer opening of the cap-
sule. In the Acridinae the tympanal capsule is much narrower than
in Oedipodinae and Cyrtacanthacrinae.
The tympanum is a thin membrane stretched tightly between the
inner margins of the tympanal depression or capsule (fig. 6B). A
small apodemal process (e) projects ventrally from the lower margin
of the latter and gives insertion to a muscle (146) arising ventrally
froma point in the membrane behind the base of the metacoxa laterad
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of the first abdominal sternum (fig. 9g A). The dilator muscle of the
spiracle (147) takes its origin at the same point. The muscle of the
tympanal frame appears to be a tensor of the tympanum. In the an-
terior part of the tympanum are two small cuticular thickenings that
support the sense organ on the inner surface (fig. 6 B, SO). The prin-
cipal support is a wide-angled V-shaped sclerite with a narrow dorsal
arm (B, C, >) and a broader ventral arm (c) diverging from an apical
knob (a). The last is a pitlike invagination of the external surface
of the tympanum, and the major part of the sense organ (B, C) is
attached directly to its ventral surface. The other support is a much
smaller pyriform sclerite (d) lying posterior to the angle of the V-
shaped sclerite, to which is attached a small fusiform branch of the
main sense organ (C).
The tympanal sense organ (fig. 6 B, SO) is a small oval body com-
posed mostly of a mass of sense cells (C, SCs), but in its upper part
is a stratum of elongate parallel cells containing sense rods, or scolopes
(Sco), beyond which is a layer of large cap cells (CpCls) by which
the organ is attached to the knob (a) at the angle of the V-shaped sup-
porting sclerite. A slender posterior branch of the main organ contains
a second smaller set of scolopes, and is attached by a fascicle of slender
cap cells to the pyriform sclerite (d). From the ventral end of the
organ the sensory nerve (Nv) proceeds to the large composite ganglion
of the ventral nerve cord lying in the metathorax.
Between the tympana of the opposite sides of the body are two large
air sacs given off from the lateral tracheal trunks in the base of the
abdomen. The sacs completely occupy the cavity of the first abdominal
segment above the alimentary canal, and their outer walls are pressed
close against the tympana. The two sacs form such a large air-filled
space in the base of the abdomen of Dissosteira that it is possible to
look clear through the body of the insect, 7. ¢., into one “ ear” and
out of the other.
The tympanal organ of the Acrididae is usually regarded as a sound
receptor, though little or no evidence of hearing on the part of the
grasshoppers has yet been produced. Few species are capable of mak-
ing sounds, and an auditory “ sense ” would not seem to be one of great
importance to a grasshopper, but the elaborate mechanical and sensory
structure of the tympanal organs suggest that the latter must subserve
some function of importance in the life of the insect. Perhaps we are
too prone to conceive of insect “‘senses”’ as sensory perception of
stimuli. An insect merely reacts through its motor mechanism to
certain stimuli. The reaction to stimuli from a tympanal receptor
organ, therefore, may be something quite different from a general
sensitivity to sound in the audible sense.
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 15
THE CERCI
The cerci of Acrididae vary in form and size from simple peglike
organs (fig. 33 A, Cer) to broader lobes of irregular shape (fig. 35 A),
sometimes provided with accessory processes (fig. 36). The cerci of
Dissosteira are of the simple type; they are longer in the male (fig.
7B) than in the female (A), but they have the same structure
in both sexes. The appendages arise from membranous areas behind
the posterior margin of the tenth abdominal tergum between the
bases of the epiproct and the paraprocts (B, Cer). The base of each
cercus has a large irregular lobe (b) extending mesally beneath the
Fic. 7——The cercus and its associated musculature. Dissosteira carolina.
ZX, left cercus of female, dorsal view. B, same of male. C, left half of
terminal part of male abdomen, dorsal view. D, inner view of base of right
cercus and its muscles.
edge of the epiproct, but it is not articulated to the surrounding scle-
rites. The shaft of the organ is clothed with long and short setae, the
short setae being more numerous on the apical part. Many of the
larger hairs, especially on the proximal half of the cercus, arise from
large, conspicuous, rosette-like alveoli with dark scalloped margins.
Keach cercus is penetrated by a large nerve, and its setae apparently are
tactile organs.
Four muscles are intimately associated with each cercus, and are
clearly concerned with its movements, though only two of them are
inserted directly on the base of the cercus (fig. 7D). The cerci of the
male are erected during copulation and grasp the base of the sub-
genital plate of the female. The elevation of each appendage is pro-
duced by the two muscles, a broad median muscle (288) and a smaller
2
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
lateral muscle (2809), both arising on the anterior margin of the tenth
tergum. The median muscle is inserted on a small sclerite in the
membrane behind the tenth tergum before the mesal lobe of the base
of the cercus (C, a) ; the lateral muscle is inserted in the same mem-
brane very close to the outer angle of the base of the cercus. A’third
muscle (D, 287) arises anteriorly on the tenth tergum just mesad
of 288, and is inserted on the posterior margin of the basal lobe of
the cercus. This muscle is evidently a depressor of the cercus. The
fourth cercal muscle (D, 293) is an adductor. It arises mesally on
the anterior part of the epiproct (fig. 14) and is inserted on the ex-
tremity of the basal lobe of the cercus. Because of the oblique plane
of the cercal base this muscle produces an adduction of the appendage.
It is interesting to note that the cerci, which appear to be appendages
of the eleventh segment, have only one pair of muscles (293) taking
their origins in this segment, and that they have no muscular con-
nections with the paraprocts.
Il. THE ABDOMINAL MUSCULATURE
The body muscles are well developed in the abdomen of the grass-
hopper, particularly in the male, and individual muscles are easily
identified. The several groups of muscles in the pregenital segments
conform with the classification of the abdominal muscles into dorsal
muscles, ventral muscles, lateral muscles, transverse muscles, and
spiracular muscles as given by the writer in an earlier paper (Ab-
domen, Part I, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 85, no. 6, 1931). The
plan of musculature in the pregenital segments, however, is lost in the
genital and postgenital segments, and the muscles of these segments
must be studied separately. The series of numerals designating the
abdominal muscles follows that of the thorax of Dissosteira (Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 2, 1929). The transverse muscles are
omitted from the descriptions of the segmental musculature and are
treated as a separate topic.
MUSCLES OF THE FIRST SEGMENT
The musculature of the first abdominal segment is simpler than that
of the following segments because of the elimination of some of the
dorsal muscles and most of the lateral muscles.
140. Lateral oblique intersegmental muscle (figs. 5 A, 9 A).—A
very slender muscle, observed only in the female, attached ventrally
on the apex of the lateral arm of the metasternal apophysis, extending
dorsally and posteriorly, mesad of the leg muscles, to the anterior
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 17
margin of the tympanal capsule of the first abdominal segment, to
which it is attached dorsal to the spiracle. This is the only thoracico-
abdominal muscle in the grasshopper.
141. Longitudinal dorsal muscles (fig. 8) —A broad sheet of mus-
cles above the tympanal capsule, arising anteriorly on the first tergum
somewhat behind the base of the phragma, inserted posteriorly on the
anterior margin of the second tergum.
142a, 142b. Lateral oblique dorsal muscles (fig. 9g A).—Two small
muscles arising laterally on the first tergum external to the longitudi-
nals, extending ventrally and posteriorly, close to the tympanal capsule,
BS lee 14-9
=
=
=
=
Ae NL OPN \ \ !
Ba das f49 19) 9154 166 172 187 202 204
Fic. 8—Muscles of the right side of the first five abdominal segments of
Dissosteira carolina, male, together with the dorsal muscles (712) of the meta-
thorax. (See fig. 10 A for identification of muscles.)
to their insertions behind the latter on the anterior margin of the
second tergum.
143. Median internal ventral muscle (fig. 8)—A wide band of
intersternal fibers over the lateral half of the sternal surface, arising
anteriorly on the antecosta of the first sternum, inserted posteriorly on
the anterior margin of the second sternum.
144. Lateral internal ventral muscle (fig. 8).—A cylindrical muscle
arising laterally on the antecosta of the first sternum, inserted pos-
teriorly on the anterior end of the apodeme of the second sternum.
145. External ventral muscle (figs. 8, 9).—This muscle is a sternal
protractor. It takes its origin laterally on the posterior part of the
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
first sternum (fig. 9 B), and extends anteriorly and dorsally to its
insertion on the under surface of the anterior apodeme of the second
sternum. Its contraction separates the two sterna.
146. Tensor of the tympanum (figs. 8, 9 A).—This muscle is the
only representative of the lateral muscles in the first abdominal seg-
ment of Dissosteira. It is a slender muscle arising laterad of the first
sternum in the membrane behind the base of the hind coxal cavity,
and extends dorsally to its insertion on the ventral process of the
tympanal capsule. Its contraction evidently serves to stretch the
tympanum.
147. Dilator muscle of the spiracle (figs. 5 A, 8, 9A).—A very
slender muscle arising with 746 in the membrane laterad of the first
abdominal sternum, extending dorsally to its insertion on the manu-
brium of the ventral atrial plate of the first spiracle.
148. Occlusor muscle of the spiracle (figs. 5A, 9 A).—A very
short muscle arising on the anterior part of the tympanal capsule above
the spiracle, inserted on the manubrium of the ventral atrial plate
opposite the dilator.
MUSCLES OF THE SECOND SEGMENT
The musculature of the second abdominal segment conforms closely
with that of the following segments except in the arrangement of the
lateral muscles.
149. Median internal dorsal muscles (fig. 8) —A flat band of four
more or less distinct groups of longitudinal fibers against the upper
part of the tergum within the pericardial cavity. Origins anteriorly
on the submarginal ridge of the second tergum, insertions posteriorly
on the anterior margin of the third tergum.
150. Lateral internal dorsal muscle (figs. 8, 9 A).—A broad extra-
pericardial muscle on the lateral part of the tergum above the upper
ends of the posterior lateral muscles, inserted in line with the intra-
pericardial dorsals on the anterior margin of the third tergum.
151. Paradorsal muscle (fig. g)—This muscle lies against the side
of the tergum below the extrapericardial dorsal muscle, external to
the internal lateral muscle (759). It is inserted posteriorly on the
anterior margin of the third tergum.
152, 153. External dorsal muscles—VTwo small oblique or trans-
verse muscles lying external to the internal dorsals in the posterior
fold of the segment, where they arise on the posterior part of the
second tergum. One extends dorsally, the other (fig. 9 B, 153) ven-
trally to their insertions on the anterior margin of the third tergum.
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN——SNODGRASS 19
These muscles in the second segment are similar to those of the third
segment (fig. 10 A, 170, 171). The external dorsals evidently pro-
duce a torsion of the adjoining tergal plates on each other.
154, 155, 156. Ventral muscles (fig. 8)—The ventral muscles of
the second segment are the same as those of the first segment and of
the segments following the second. They comprise median (154) and
lateral (755) internal ventrals, which are sternal retractors, and an
external muscle (756) on each side, which is a sternal protractor.
157-164. Lateral muscles (fig. 9)—The lateral muscles of the
second segment differ in many respects from those of the segments
following. They comprise an outer and an inner series of tergosternal
142a 142b IIT
{ |
A
Fic. 9—Lateral muscles of the first and second abdominal segments of
Dissosteira carolina, right side, inner view, female.
A, all muscles in place. B, external lateral muscles of second segment (160,
162, 163, 164) exposed by cutting and partial removal of overlying muscles.
muscles, a pair of tergopleural muscles, and a sternopleural muscle.
The inner series of tergosternals includes three muscles. The first
(fig. 9 A, 157) arises on the anterior lobe of the tergum and is
inserted on the anterior apodeme (Ap) of the sternum; the second
(758) arises on the tergum above the spiracle and has the same in-
sertion as 157. The third (759) is a much larger muscle arising on
the tergum beneath the edge of the lateral dorsal muscle (150) and
inserting on the lateral margin of the sternum. The outer series of
tergosternals includes a short muscle (fig. 9 B, 160) from the anterior
ventral angle of the tergum to the anterior end of the sternal apodeme,
and a broad posterior muscle (A, 261) arising external to the para-
dorsal muscle (757) and inserted on the edge of the sternum behind
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 9Q4
159. The two tergopleural muscles (B, 762, 163) arise anteriorly and
posteriorly on the lower part of the tergum external to 159 and 161,
and converge upon a narrow linear sclerite in the membrane between
the tergum and the sternum. In all the other segments the external
lateral muscles are attached directly on the sternum. The sternopleural
muscle of the second segment is a group of very short fibers (B, 164)
connecting the pleural sclerite with the sternum.
165, 166. Muscles of the spiracle (fig. 9 B).—The dilator of the
spiracle (165) is a long slender muscle arising on the apodeme of
the sternum, the occlusor (166) a short muscle arising on the tergum ;
both are inserted on the manubrium of the movable valve of the spi-
racular atrium.
MUSCLES OF THE THIRD SEGMENT
The musculature of the third segment presents the typical abdominal
musculature of the grasshopper, since its pattern is repeated in seg-
ments J/J to ]’II in both sexes, and its dorsal and ventral muscles
are duplicated in the second segment.
167. Median internal dorsal muscles (fig. 10 A).—These muscles
of the third segment, as those of the second, consist of four flat groups
of fibers (a, b, c, d) lying within the pericardial chamber, extending
from the anterior tergal ridge (tv) to the anterior edge of the fol-
lowing tergum. In the succeeding segments they become more oblique
(figs. 8, 12, 182, 197, 227) with their posterior ends dorsal to their
anterior ends.
. 168. Lateral internal dorsal muscle (fig. 10 A).—The lateral dorsal
muscle is separated from the median dorsals by the attachments of
the transverse muscles of the dorsal diaphragm on the tergum (fd),
and is, therefore, extrapericardial. In the following segments this
muscle becomes conspicuously fan-shaped (figs. 8, 12, 183, 198, 228,
243).
169. Paradorsal muscle (fig. 10 A).—The paradorsal muscle is dis-
tinguished from the other lateral dorsal muscle (167, 168) by the
fact that it lies external to the internal lateral muscles (175, 170).
It has the same relations in some other insects, though it is a muscle
not generally present. In Dissosteira it is repeated in the segments /
to VII of both sexes, and in segment VIII of the male (fig. 12, 244).
The paradorsal muscle has been termed a “ pleural” muscle, but it
lies well within the area of the dorsum. Since it occurs in some larval
insects lacking tergal plates, the writer here discards the former name
of “ paratergal ’’ muscle. (Snodgrass, 1931.)
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 21
170, 171. External dorsal muscles (fig. 10 A).—External dorsal
muscles occur in segments JJ to VII of both sexes, and also in seg-
ment VIII of the male. They take their origins on the posterior parts
of the terga within the intersegmental folds, and are inserted on the
overlapped anterior margin of the tergum following in each case. The
median external dorsal of segment /// (figs. 10 A, 11 B, 170) arises
Fic. 10.—Muscles of the third abdominal segment of Dissosteira carolina.
A, muscles of the right side, inner view. 167, median internal dorsals; 168,
lateral internal dorsal; 169, paradorsal muscle; 170, median external dorsal ;
171, lateral external dorsal; 172, median internal ventral; 173, lateral internal
ventral; 274, external ventral; 175, 176, internal laterals; 177, 178, 179, external
laterals; fd, attachment of dorsal transverse (diaphragm) muscles.
B, position of the muscles in cross-section of third segment, diagrammatic.
dil, lateral internal dorsals; dim, median internal dorsals; DS, dorsal sinus ;
DV, dorsal blood vessel; /Ap, lateral apodeme of sternum; le, first ex-
ternal lateral muscle; Ji, internal lateral muscle; p, paradorsal muscle; PvS,
perivisceral sinus; td, dorsal transverse muscles (of dorsal diaphragm) ; tv,
ventral transverse muscles (of ventral diaphragm) ; vil, lateral internal ventral
muscle; vim, median. internal ventral muscle; / NC, ventral nerve cord; VS,
ventral sinus.
had
dorsal to the lateral muscle (771) ; the first proceeds dorsally to its
insertion, the second ventrally. In the posterior segments the corre-
sponding muscles become much longer ; the base of the median muscle
has migrated ventrally, that of the lateral muscle dorsally, until the
two muscles cross each other obliquely on the side of the tergum.
The relations of the two muscles to each other and to the successive
terga on which they are attached is best seen when the terga are pulled
apart (fig. 11 C). The external dorsals in Acrididae, as already noted,
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
are evidently torsion muscles, their transverse positions enabling them
to give a movement of partial rotation to the terga on each other.
In the generalized condition the external dorsal muscles are longi-
tudinal in position and lie external to the internal dorsals, but they
are commonly shorter than the latter ; and have a tendency to become
restricted to the posterior part of the segment. In many of the higher
insects they become completely reversed in position, since they take
their origins on the posterior part of the tergum and extend forward
in the intersegmental fold to their insertions on the invaginated an-
terior margin of the following tergum. They thus become tergal pro-
tractors. The position of the external dorsals of the grasshopper is
seen to be intermediate between the more primitive condition and that
of complete reversal. The external ventral muscles, on the other hand,
are reversed and hence function as sternal protractors.
172, 173, 174. The ventral muscles (fig. 10 A).—The ventral
musculature of segment J/J is typical of that of all the pregenital
segments (figs. 8, 12). The median internal ventrals (fig. 10 A, 172)
are the principal sternal retractors; the short lateral internal ventral
on each side (173) arises at the base of the anterior apodeme (aAp)
just before the angle of the sternal ridge (sr), and is inserted on the
anterior end of the corresponding apodeme of the following sternum.
The lateral external ventral on each side (174) 1s a sternal protractor,
being completely reversed in position, with its origin on the posterior
part of the sternum and its insertion anterior on the under face of
the anterior apodeme of the following sternum.
The lateral musculature is alike in segments J// to V’I/, there being
in each of these segments representatives of the following five muscles
of segment ///, two of which are internal laterals, and three external
laterals.
175. Furst internal lateral muscle (fig. 10 A).—A slender muscle
arising dorsally beneath the edge of the lateral dorsal (168), extending
ventrally and anteriorly to its insertion on the base of the lateral
apodeme of the sternum.
176. Second internal lateral muscle (fig. 10 A).—A broad muscle
arising on the side of the tergum just behind 175 and also beneath the
edge of the lateral dorsal (16S), extending ventrally to its insertion
on the lateral margin of the sternum. The internal laterals are the
principal expiratory muscles, since their contraction lifts the sternum
and contracts the abdomen in a vertical direction.
177. First external lateral muscle (fig. 10 A).—This muscle arises
ventrally on the anterior part of the ventral margin of the tergum,
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 23
and goes dorsally to its insertion on the outer face of the lateral apo-
deme of the sternum (fig. 10 B, zle). It is thus a dilator of the
abdomen and an inspiratory muscle in respiration, since its contrac-
tion separates the sternum from the tergum (fig. 11 F, G).
178, 179. Second and third external lateral muscles (fig. 10 A).—
These two muscles arise on the lateral part of the tergum below the
Fic. 1t1.—Abdominal mechanisms of Acrididae.
A, mechanism of tergosternal movements: tergum and sternum approximated
by internal lateral muscles (7/1, 2/1), separated by first external lateral (rie),
Saas on each other by oblique second and third external laterals
ale, 3le).
B, C, mechanism of torsion, or partial rotary movements of segments, by the
transverse external dorsal muscles, best developed in posterior segments (C).
D, mechanism of tergosternal and intersternal movements: dorsoventral dila-
tion produced by first external lateral muscle (z/e) ; lengthwise sternal contrac-
tion by internal ventrals (vim, vil); protraction by external ventral (vel).
E, the sternal apodemes, right side, anterior view.
F, G, mechanism of respiration: expiratory movement (F) produced by in-
ternal lateral muscles (Ji, see A), inspiratory movement (G) by first external
lateral (zle).
paradorsal muscle (1269), and cross each other obliquely, the first
going anteriorly, the second posteriorly, to their insertions on the op-
posite ends of the lateral margin of the sternum (fig. 11 A, 2le, 3le).
The muscles of this pair evidently serve to give forward and back-
ward movements to the tergum and sternum on each other.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
180, 181. Muscles of the spiracles—The spiracular muscles are
alike in segments JJ to VIII, and the description of those of the
second spiracles (165, 166) will serve for each of the following
spiracles.
MUSCLES OF THE EIGHTH SEGMENT
The muscles of the eighth segment are quite different in the male
and the female. The musculature of this segment in the male (fig. 12)
conforms with that of the preceding segments except for the reduc-
tion of the internal dorsals to a single broad band of fibers on each
side (242), and in the absence of the first internal lateral. In the
female most of the usual muscles are retained in modified form, but -
there are several muscles pertaining to the ovipositor and the ovi-
ducts that have no counterparts in the male. The muscles of the
eighth segment of the female are as follows:
242, 243. Internal dorsal muscles (fig. 14).—A transverse series
of six longitudinal groups of fibers on each side of the eighth tergum
(VIIIT), inserted posteriorly on the apodeme and anterior margin of
the ninth tergum (JX7T). The lateral muscle on each side (243)
is much larger than the others.
244. Paradorsal muscle—Absent in the eighth segment of the
female.
245. Median external dorsal muscle (fig. 14).—A broad muscle
arising on the posterior margin of the eighth tergum, the fibers con-
verging anteriorly and mesally to their insertions on the anterior
apodeme (Ap) of the ninth tergum.
246. Lateral external dorsal muscle—Absent in the female.
247. Median internal ventral muscle—A slender muscle arising
anterolaterally on the eighth sternum (fig. 13), inserted posteriorly
on the median apodemal process of the anterior intervalvula of the
ovipositor (fig. 17 D).
248. Lateral ventral muscle —This muscle arises at the base of the
apodeme of the eighth sternum (fig. 13) as in the preceding seg-
ments ; but it is attached posteriorly in Dissosteira on the anterior basal
sclerite of the first valvula of the ovipositor (fig. 17 A, B, E), and in
Melanoplus (fig. 20 C) on the lateral pocket of the genital chamber.
249. External ventral muscle-——Absent in the female, unless repre-
sented by the depressor of the first valvula (fig. 17 A, B, 272).
250. Internal lateral muscle (figs. 13, 14).—-A very large triangular
muscle arising laterally on the eighth tergum, its fibers spreading ven-
trally to their insertions along the entire lateral margin of the eighth
sternum (fig. 13). This muscle evidently corresponds with the second
—————— eee EEE
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN——SNODGRASS 25
internal lateral of the preceding segments, the first being absent in
the eighth segment both in the female and the male (fig. 12).
251. First external lateral muscle (figs. 13, 14).—A thick muscle
arising in the lower anterior angle of the eighth tergum, inserted an-
teriorly on the outer face of the apodeme (A?) of the eighth sternum.
252. Second external lateral muscle (figs. 13, 14.).—A small muscle
arising on the lower part of the eighth tergum below the spiracle,
inserted on the base of the apodeme of the eighth sternum.
253. Third external lateral muscle——Absent in the female.
254, 255. Muscles of the spiracle (figs. 13, 14).—Same as in the
preceding segments.
\ \
252 247 267 EXiS) (266
Fic. 12.—Muscles of the seventh, eighth, and ninth segments of the male
abdomen of Dissosteira carolina, right side, inner view.
The following muscles of the eighth segment of the female have no
representatives in the male.
256. Short protractor of the ovipositor——A short muscle with a
broad base arising on the side of the eighth tergum anterior to 250
(figs. 13, 14), inserted anteriorly on the anterior end of the apodeme
of the ovipositor (fig. 17 A, C).
257. Anterior muscle of the median oviduct (fig. 13).—A slender
muscle arising on the end of the apodeme of the eighth sternum, ex-
tending mesally to its insertion on the anterior end of the median ovi-
duct. This muscle is absent in Melanoplus.
258. Posterior muscle of the median oviduct (fig. 13).—A long
flat muscle arising on the end of the apodeme of the eighth sternum,
extending mesally and posteriorly to the posterior end of the median
oviduct.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
259. The muscular sheath of the oviducts—The walls of the median
oviduct and of the proximal parts of the lateral ducts have a muscular
sheath of internal circular fibers and external longitudinal fibers. The
longitudinal fibers are continued upon the walls of the calyces, but the
circular fibers appear to be absent in these parts of the lateral ducts,
and no muscles are present on the anterior glandular parts.
MUSCLES OF THE NINTH SEGMENT
The musculature of the ninth segment differs so much between the
male and the female that few muscles can be identified with each other
in the two sexes, or homologized with muscles of the pregenital seg-
ments. Besides the segmental muscles there are in the female special
muscles of the ovipositor, and in the male special muscles of the
phallic organs.
In the male grasshopper the following nine muscles take their origins
on the segmental plates of the ninth segment.
260. Internal dorsal muscle (fig. 12).—A small band of fibers
arising near the mid-dorsal line on the anterior edge of the ninth
tergum, the fibers spreading posteriorly and laterally to their insertions
on the anterior margin of the tenth tergum. This small muscle is the
only representative of the intertergal dorsals in the ninth segment of
the male.
261. Retractor of the phallus—A short, thick, conical muscle aris-
ing by a wide base dorsolaterally on the ninth tergum (fig. 12), in-
serted posteriorly and ventrally on a small oval sclerite in the wall of
the genital chamber just laterad of the epiphallus (fig. 25 D).
262, 203. Muscles of the female not represented in the male.
264. Ventral dilator of the rectum —A fan-shaped muscle arising
on the ninth sternum at the base of the sternal apodeme (fig. 12
shows point of origin), the slender fibers spreading dorsally in a
longitudinal plane to their insertions on the ventral wall of the rectum
(fig. TOA):
205. Ventral muscles (fig. 12).—A pair of straplike muscles on each
side arising laterally on the ninth sternum at the base of the anterior
apodeme, going posteriorly and dorsally to the membranous venter
of the tenth segment just before the base of the paraproct.
206. Retractor of the aedeagus ——A broad, thin sheet of fibers aris-
ing from a median ridge of the ninth sternum (figs. 12, 25 A), at-
tached dorsally to the wall of the genital chamber laterad of the base
of the aedeagus (fig. 25 A).
267. Protractor of the aedeagus——A large, triangular muscle aris-
ing by a long base on the median ridge of the ninth sternum, mesad
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 27
of 260 (figs. 12, 25 A), the fibers converging dorsally and anteriorly
to their insertion on the lateral lobe of the epiphallus (fig. 25 A, D) ;
its contraction probably elevates the distal part of the phallic apparatus.
268, 269. Internal lateral muscles (fig. 12).—Two large oblique
muscles on each side in the position of the second internal lateral of
the pregenital segments. The first is inserted ventrally on the lateral
margin of the ninth sternum; the second is inserted by a narrowed
stalk at the edge of the ninth sternum between the basal and distal
plates of the latter.
270. External lateral muscle (fig. 12).—This muscle clearly cor-
responds with the first external lateral of the pregenital segments.
It arises on the anterior lateral area of the ninth tergum and is in-
serted on the outer face of the apodeme of the ninth sternum.
In the ninth segment of the female there are the following Io paired
muscles or sets of muscles, including the segmental muscles and the
muscles of the ovipositor.
260. Internal dorsal muscles (fig. 14).—A transverse series of
five small bands of longitudinal fibers on each side extending from the
anterior margin of the ninth tergum to the anterior margin of the
tenth tergum.
261. Not represented in the female.
262. Long protractor of the ovipositor—Origin laterally on the
posterior margin of the ninth tergum (figs. 14, 17 C), extends for-
ward to its insertion on the anterior end of the apodeme of the ovi-
positor (fig. 17 C).
263. Retractor of the ovipositor—Origin on the anterior margin
of the ninth tergum (figs. 14, 17 C) ventrad of 262, extends pos-
teriorly to its insertion laterally in the base of the dorsal valvula of
the ovipositor (fig. 17 C).
264. Ventral dilator of the rectum.—A fan-shaped group of slender
fibers arising from the dorsal surface of the apodeme of the oviposi-
tor (fig. 17 B), spreading to their insertions on the ventrolateral line
of the rectum (fig. 16 A). If the ventral dilators of the rectum are
identical in the male and female, their origins would seem to identify
the apodemes of the ovipositor with the anterior apodemes of the
ninth sternum in the male.
265-270.—These muscles of the ninth segment present in the male
(fig. 12) cannot be identified with any certainty in the female, though
it is possible some of them are included in the following musculature
of the ovipositor.
271. Levator of the dorsal valvula (fig. 17 A, B, C).—A large thick
muscle lying on the dorsal surface of the apodeme of the ovipositor,
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
attached anteriorly on the latter, and posteriorly on the dorsal margin
of the base of the dorsal valvula.
272. Depressor of the ventral valvula (fig. 17 A, B)—A massive
bundle of fibers arising on the ventral face of the apodeme of the
ovipositor, inserted on the basal plates of the ventral valvula. This
muscle possibly corresponds with the intersternal protractors, or
external ventrals, of the pregenital segments.
273. Adductors of the ventral valvulae (fig. 17 C, D).—A pair of
flat muscles arising anteriorly on the proximal parts of the inner
margins of the apodemes of the ovipositor, the two converging pos-
teriorly to the median apodeme of the ventral intervalvula (f). The
retraction of the intervalvula causes an adduction of the valvulae.
Fic. 13.—Laterodorsal and ventral muscles of the seventh and eighth segments
of the female abdomen of Dissosteira carolina, right side, inner view.
274. Adductors of the dorsal valvulae (fig. 17 A, B, C).—Origin
on the proximal part of the dorsal surface of the ovipositor apodemes,
insertion posteriorly on the posterior intervalvula (B, C, piv). The
contraction of the convergent muscles of this pair approximates th
valvulae of opposite sides.
275. Muscle of the second valvula (fig. 17 B, C).—A small muscle
arising laterally on the dorsal surface of the anterior intervalvula, in-
serted posteriorly in the distal end of the small second valvula.
276. Dilator of the spermathecal aperture-—A very small muscle
of a few delicate fibers arising on the lateral basal plate of the ventral
valvula (fig. 17 E, a), inserted mesally on the side of the groove in the
dorsal wall of the genital chamber containing the aperture of the
spermathecal duct (fig. 20 D).
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 29
277. Muscles of the spermathecal duct-——The entire length of the
spermathecal duct is covered by a muscular sheath consisting of outer
longitudinal fibers and inner circular fibers.
The following muscles of the ninth segment of the male pertain
entirely to the phallic organs and the ejaculatory duct. It is impossible
to discover any identity between them and muscles of the female.
278. Epiphallic muscle of the aedeagus (fig. 25 B, C)—A long
muscle lying dorsally in the basal fold of the phallus, attached an-
teriorly on the lateral lobe of the epiphallus (4), and posteriorly on
the zygoma (2) of the aedeagal apodemes.
279. Lateral muscle of the aedeagus (fig. 25 B).—A short muscle
arising lateroventrally in the base of the aedeagus, inserted dorsally
on the lower edge of the lateral plate (m) of the aedeagus.
280. Muscle of the ventral lobe of the aedeagus (fig. 25 B)—A
delicate muscle arising within the base of the aedeagus, inserted dis-
tally near the apex of the ventral lobe of the latter.
281. Lateral dilator of the endophallus (fig. 25 C, E).—A broad
sheet of muscle arising dorsally on the aedeagal apodeme (C, Apa),
the fibers extending ventrally and anteriorly to the endophallic apo-
deme (C, E, w).
282. Dorsal dilator of the endophallus (fig. 25 F).—A broad flat
muscle on the dorsal surface of the endophallic bulb, arising laterally
on the inner face of the aedeagal apodeme (Apa), inserted mesally on
the dorsal edge (1) of the lateral plate of the endophallus.
283. Compressor of the endophallus (fig. 25, E, F. G)—An un-
paired transverse muscle uniting the endophallic apodemes (zw), the
fibers covering the anterior and anteroventral walls of the endophallic
bulb (G). This muscle approximates the endophallic plates and dilates
the orifice of the ejaculatory sac.
284. Compressor of the ejaculatory sac (fig. 25 C, E).—A broad
sheet of muscle arising internal to 281 (C) on the lateral plate of the
endophallus, the fibers converging ventrally to their insertions on the
lateral wall of the ejaculatory sac (E, ejs).
285. Muscles of the ejaculatory duct (fig. 25 E).—A thick sheath
of circular fibers surrounds the ejaculatory duct from the entrance of
the mucous glands to the beginning of the ejaculatory sac.
MUSCLES OF THE TENTH SEGMENT
The muscles of the tenth segment have no evident relation to the
muscles of the preceding segments. They comprise muscles to the
cerci, the epiproct and the paraprocts, dilators of the rectum, and in the
female a transverse intrasegmental muscle.
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
286. Dorsal dilator of the rectum.—A group of slender fibers aris-
ing dorsally on the tenth tergum mesad of the other muscles (fig. 14),
spreading fanwise ventrally to their insertions laterodorsally on the
posterior part of the rectum (fig. 16 A).
287. Depressor of the cercus (figs. 7 D, 14).—A narrow muscle
arising anteriorly on the median part of the tenth tergum, inserted
posteriorly on the posterior margin of the median basal lobe of the
cercus.
288. Median levator of the cercus (figs. 7 D, 14.).—A broad muscle
arising anteriorly on the tenth tergum laterad of 287, inserted pos-
teriorly on the small sclerite between the tenth tergum and the basal
J] Papt Eppt |
Fic. 14——Dorsal muscles of eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh abdominal seg-
ments of female of Dissosteira carolina, ventral view.
lobe of the cercus, some of the mesal fibers in some cases inserted on
the basal angle of the epiproct.
289. Lateral levator of the cercus (figs. 7 D, 14).—A slender mus-
cle taking its origin on the tenth tergum immediately laterad of 288,
inserted posteriorly in the membrane behind the tenth tergum close
to the outer angle of the base of the cercus.
290. Lateral dilator of the rectum—A fan of fibers arising an-
teriorly on the lateral part of the tenth tergum (fig. 14, 290), spread-
ing mesad in a horizontal plane to their insertions along the lateral
line of the posterior part of the rectum (fig. 16 A).
291. Ventral muscle of the paraproct (fig. 14).—A broad muscle
arising on the anterior margin of the lateral part of the tenth tergum,
inserted posteriorly on the base of the paraproct ventrally.
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 31
292. Transverse muscle (fig. 14).—An unpaired, straplike trans-
verse muscle, present only in the female, lying dorsal to the base of
the ovipositor and attached laterally on the ends of the tenth tergum.
(Only the ends of this muscle shown in the figure.)
MUSCLES OF THE ELEVENTH SEGMENT
The musculature of the eleventh segment includes muscles from the
epiproct to the cerci and paraprocts, and muscles from the epiproct and
paraprocts to the circumanal membrane.
293. Adductor of the cercus (figs. 7D, 14).—A slender muscle
arising anteromedially on the epiproct, inserted on the inner extremity
of the basal lobe of the cercus.
294. Adductor of the paraproct (fig. 14).—A large muscle arising
medially on the epiproct just behind 293 in the female, extending
laterally and posteriorly to its insertion on the upper part of the para-
proct behind the base of the cercus. In the male this muscle arises
mesad of 293 and underlaps the base of the latter.
295. Dorsal dilator of the anus——A median unpaired muscle arising
centrally on the epiproct (fig. 14), its fibers spreading distally to their
insertions on the dorsal part of the circumanal membrane (fig. 16 A).
296. Lateral dilator of the anus —Origin on the paraproct near the
base of the outer wall of the latter (fig. 14) ; extends dorsally, mesally,
and posteriorly to its insertion ventrolaterally on the rectum just
within the anus (fig. 16 A).
THE TRANSVERSE MUSCLES
The transverse muscles of the abdomen comprise dorsal transverse
muscles (fig. 10 B, td) and ventral transverse muscles (tv). The
former are always the muscles of the dorsal diaphragm; the ventral
muscles may consist of segmentally individual bundles of transverse
fibers, but in the Acrididae they form a continuous muscular sheet, or
ventral diaphragm. The muscle uniting the opposite ends of the tenth
tergum in the female of Dissosteira (fig. 14, 292) is literally a dorsal
transverse muscle, but it evidently does not belong to the series of
diaphragm muscles.
III. THE DIAPHRAGMS AND THE DORSAL BLOOD VESSEL
The so-called diaphragms of insects are transverse dorsal and ven-
tral partitions of the body cavity that separate from the axial pervis-
ceral sinus (fig. 10 B, PvS) a dorsal sinus, or pericardial cavity (DS),
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
and a ventral sinus, or perineural cavity (VS). Each of the dia-
phragms differs much in the degree of its development in different
insects. The dorsal diaphragm is almost always present in some form,
but the ventral diaphragm is frequently absent; the first is confined
principally to the abdomen, the second may extend into the thorax.
Probably each diaphragm consists of a double peritoneal membrane,
the layers of which are reflected from the walls of the body cavity ; but
the membranes enclose between them the dorsal and ventral transverse
muscles, and the muscles become the more important elements of the
Se
ee
irae oa 3Ph =
SS k 4X = aE es es
| VIII
—SS
a D
a
5 Ars
a= q
IES He Tra
Fic. 15.—The dorsal blood vessel and diaphragms of Dissosteira carolina.
A, ventral view of anterior part of dorsal diaphragm extending to lobes of third
phragma (3Ph), showing segmental groups of transverse muscles (td), and
dorsal blood vessel along median line above the diaphragm. B, posterior part
of dorsal diaphragm and dorsal blood vessel in segments V’///, /X, and X. C,
dorsal view of part of ventral diaphragm, attached on lateral parts of sterna.
diaphragms, which by the vibratory contractions of the muscles serve
as important adjuncts to the heart in the circulation of the blood.
The dorsal diaphragm of Acrididae extends from the anterior end
of the first abdominal segment to the posterior part of the ninth seg-
ment, and is continued into the metathorax as a narrow membranous
fringe along each side of the aorta. In the first abdominal segment the
broad anterior margin of the diaphragm is attached to the posterior
faces of the lobes of the third phragma (fig. 15 A) ; the lateral edges
in this segment are free and deeply emarginate. In the following seg-
ments the limits of the dorsal diaphragm are difficult to define in a
ventral dissection, except by the muscle attachments, for the lower
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 33
diaphragm membrane appears to be everywhere continuous with a
delicate peritoneal covering over the inner surfaces of the somatic
muscles lying lateral of the pericardial cavity. The upper membrane
of the diaphragm, however, being reflected upon the dorsal pericardial
wall, more clearly marks the limits of the diaphragm itself. The two
membranes of the diaphragm can be distinguished in whole prepara-
tions under the microscope by the two layers of nuclei, one dorsal to
the muscle fibers, the other ventral. It is apparent that the two mem-
branes, however, are simply continuations of a peritoneal lining of the
perivisceral cavity and of a similar lining of the pericardial cavity,
with the transverse muscles between them.
The muscles of the dorsal diaphragm in Dissosteira begin in the
second segment of the abdomen (fig. 15 A) and end in the ninth
segment (B). They consist of a double series of transverse fibers,
separated into segmental groups, but for the most part approximately
parallel. In all but the second and ninth segments the fibers are slightly
divided into secondary anterior and posterior groups. This intra-
segmental segregation of the fibers is more accentuated in Mclanoplus
than in Dissosteira. The fibers arise laterally on the tergal plates be-
tween the median and the lateral longitudinal dorsal muscles (figs.
8, 10). Their median ends branch toward the ventral wall of the heart,
on which they break up into fine fibrils, and the fibrils from opposite
sides appear to unite in an intricate plexus.
The dorsal blood vessel extends from beneath the brain into the
tenth abdominal segment. Ostia and slight segmental enlargements of
the tube are present in abdominal segments // to JX (fig. 15 A, B).
Dorsal ampullar enlargements of the aorta occur in the mesothorax,
metathorax, and first abdominal segment. Posteriorly the heart term-
inates 1n a narrow tapering tube extending into the tenth abdominal
segment. For most of its length the dorsal vessel is accompanied by
strands of nephrocytes, and the aortic ampullae are capped by dense
masses of nephrocytic cells. The pericardial cavity contains also loosely
scattered fat cells, and is penetrated by loops of the Malpighian tubules.
The dorsal longitudinal tracheal trunks (fig. 15 A, B) lie along the
sides of the blood vessel and are connected with the lateral trunks by
transverse tracheae in the posterior part of each abdominal segment.
It would appear that the blood has entrance into the pericardial cavity
only above the free lateral margins of the diaphragm in the first ab-
dominal segment, and at the posterior end of the diaphragm in the
eighth and ninth segments.
The ventral diaphragm in Dissosteira extends from the head into
the seventh (female) or eighth (male) abdominal segment. In the
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
anterior part of the thorax this diaphragm is merely a very delicate
membrane attached laterally on the salivary glands and on masses of
fat tissue. Between the widely spreading bases of the metasternal
apophyses, however, there begins in the membrane a series of trans-
verse muscle fibers, which continues to the posterior end as the prin-
cipal tissue of the diaphragm. The fibers are attached in the meta-
thorax to the metasternal apophyses, and in the abdomen on the lateral
parts of the sternal plates (fig. 15 C). Most of the fibers go continu-
ously across from one side to the other, but in each segment the
anterior and posterior fibers spread somewhat forward and backward
to bridge the spaces between the consecutive sternal plates. Posteriorly
the ventral diaphragm ends abruptly in a free transverse margin, which
in the female crosses the anterior part of the seventh abdominal seg-
ment, but in the male is in the anterior part of the eighth segment. In
the female the last two ganglia of the ventral nerve cord lie beyond
the diaphragm and are dorsal to the spermatheca, the anterior end of
which may extend into the ventral sinus. In the male only the last
ganglion is not covered by the diaphragm.
IV. THE PROCTODAEUM
The proctodaeum of the grasshopper is a tube of fairly uniform
diameter composed of anterior and posterior sections separated by a
narrower and usually bent middle section (fig. 16 A), but the relative
size of the parts varies much in different specimens according to the
distension, or according to the state of contraction of the muscles.
The anterior end of the proctodaeum is marked externally by the
origins of the Malpighian tubules (Mal), which are disposed in 12
groups of about 10 tubules each, arranged in a circle immediately be-
hind the ventriculus (Vent). There is no clear anatomical division of
the proctodaeum into an anterior intestine and posterior intestine,
and there are no specifically developed internal valves, but four fairly
well-marked proctodaeal regions may be distinguished by external and
internal characters. The first is a short pylorus (Py) into which the
Malpighian tubules open, the second is a long saclike ileum (J/), the
third a narrower and usually bent colon (Cin), and the fourth is the
large rectum (Rect) comprising a wide anterior rectal sac and a
narrow terminal part extending to the anus.
The muscularis of the proctodaeum consists of external longitudinal
fibers and internal circular fibers, the relation of the two sets of
muscles on the proctodaeum being thus the same as that of the ven-
tricular muscles (fig. 16 A), though the muscle fibers of these two
parts of the alimentary canal are not continuous with each other.
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 35
The circular muscles of the proctodaeum begin just behind the bases
of the Malpighian tubules, forming here a pyloric sphincter of large
fibers (A, B, c), and continue (d) uninterruptedly over the entire
length of the rest of the stomodaeal tube. They are particularly strong
on the colon. The longitudinal muscles arise as distinct fibers on the
anterior end of the proctodaeum in the neighborhood of the Malpighian
tubules, but the fibers immediately converge over the pyloric sphincter
into six equally spaced muscle bands (e) on the wall of the ileum,
ANVIL IEA
MMMM
= :
I).
Mal
Fic. 16.—The proctodaeum of Dissosteira carolina.
A, general view of the proctodaeum, showing its subdivisions, its muscles,
and groups of Malpighian tubules given off from anterior end. B, internal view
of pyloric region between ventriculus and ileum, with pockets from which the
Malpighian tubules arise. C, anterior ends of rectal “ glands,’ inner view of
rectal wall.
a, b, circular and longitudinal muscles of ventriculus; c, pyloric sphincter ;
Cln, colon; d, circular muscles of proctodaeum; e, bands of longitudinal procto-
daeal muscles; Eppt, epiproct; f, fold marking terminus of ventricular wall;
g, Malpighian pockets; h, i, internal folds of wall of ileum; J//, ileum; 7, rectal
pads; Mal Malpighian tubules; Py, pylorus; Rect, rectum; Vent, ventriculus ;
264, 286, 290, ventral, dorsal, and lateral dilator muscles of posterior part of
rectum ; 295, 296, epiproctial and paraproctial dilators of the anus (see fig. 14).
and continue thus to the posterior end of the latter. Here each band
breaks up into a group of fibers branching on the colon, some of which
appear to go beneath the circular fibers to attach on the intima of the
proctodaeal wall. On the posterior part of the colon the longitudinal
fibers reassemble in six bands that traverse the outer wall of the rectal
sac, and then again branch and appear to go beneath the circular mus-
cles to be inserted on the wall of the terminal part of the rectum.
Finally the longitudinal fibers appear once more as six short external
bands on the terminal part of the rectum, and end with attachments on
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the lips of the anus. The colon is the most strongly musculated part
of the intestine, and, when in a state of contraction, it often appears
as a very short connective between the distended ileal and rectal sacs.
The posterior part of the rectum is provided with fan-shaped dorsal,
lateral, and ventral dilator muscles arising on the body wall and in-
serted on the proctodaeum in line with the longitudinal muscle bands
of the latter (fig. 16A). The dorsal dilators (286) arise medially
on the tergum of the tenth abdominal segment (fig. 14), and their
spreading fibers are inserted on the rectum along the lines of the latero-
dorsal longitudinal muscles. The lateral dilators (fig. 16 A, 200) arise
laterally on the tenth tergum (fig. 14), and are inserted in line with
the lateral longitudinal muscles of the rectum. The ventral dilators
(fig. 16 A, 264) arise in the male at the bases of the anterior apodemes
of the ninth abdominal sternum (fig. 12), in the female on the
apodemes of the ovipositor (fig. 17 B), and are inserted in line with
the lateroventral longitudinal muscles of the rectum.
The structure of the inner wall of the proctodaeum of Dissosteira
carolina has been described and figured by Tietz (1923), who shows
that the several parts of the intestinal tube present characteristic his-
tological differences. Viewed internally, it is seen that the Malpighian
tubules open into 12 pockets of the pyloric region (fig. 16 B, g), and
that the pockets are somewhat overlapped anteriorly by a circular fold
of the enteric wall (f). The proctodaeal intima lines the Malpighian
pockets and is reflected to the edge of the overhanging fold. It is
clear, therefore, that the crest of this fold (f) is the true line of
separation between the mesenteron and the proctodaeum, and that
the Malpighian tubules arise from the proctodaeum. Between the
Malpighian pockets the wall of the proctodaeal pylorus forms 12 broad,
padlike thickenings (/1), which are crossed externally by the sphincter
muscle (c), and which, therefore, may constitute collectively a pyloric
closing apparatus between the stomach and the colon. Posteriorly the
pyloric pads are narrowed and are either continued as well-marked
folds on the wall of the ileum (7), or they are broken up into numer-
ous small folds, according to the degree of tension in the ileal wall.
The external longitudinal muscle bands of the ileum (e) lie between
each alternate pair of internal folds. When the folds are accentuated
by contraction of the proctodaeal muscles, they extend posteriorly
through the colon to the rectum. According to Tietz (1923) the proc-
todaeal intima has a thickness of .oo8 mm in the ileum, and of .o12 mm
in the colon.
The inner wall of the rectal sac presents six long, flat, parallel thick-
enings lying between the external bands of longitudinal muscles, each
no. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 37
tapering or rounded at the ends, and having sharply defined margins
formed by the covering cuticula (fig. 16 C, 7). These structures are
the so-called “ rectal glands.” In the grasshopper there is nothing to
suggest that they have a secretory function, the surface cuticula being
relatively thick, and the epithelium, as shown by Tietz (1923), con-
sisting of simple columnar cells. For the same reasons, also, it does
not seem probable that the rectal pads are organs for the absorption
of water from the faeces (see Wigglesworth, 1932); in fact, any
other part of the rectum would appear to be better adapted to an
absorptive function. On the other hand, the hard flat surfaces of the
pads, forming six plaques in strong relief on the inner wall of the
rectum, suggest that, by contraction of the surrounding circular mus-
cles, the structures may serve to compress the contents of the rectal
sac and thus extract water from the faeces.
V. THE OVIPOSITOR AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES
The ovipositor of the Acrididae is primarily a digging organ that
works by a forcible separation of the short recurved valvulae. It thus
differs radically in its action from the usual egg-laying organ of other
insects, in which the valvulae are interlocked and move lengthwise
on one another. The acridid ovipositor, therefore, has quite a differ-
ent mechanism from that of the sliding type of ovipositor. Though
the prongs of the grasshopper’s ovipositor, as shown by their develop-
ment, are without doubt homologues of the valvulae of other insects,
it is apparent that the usual supporting basal plates, or valvifers, are
absent, and that the musculature of the acridid organ has little relation
to that of an ovipositor in which the muscles of the valvifers are the
principal motor elements. A second important function of the acridid
Ovipositor, however, is that of manipulating the eggs, as the latter
issue from the oviducal opening, in such a manner that they may be
placed appropriately in the egg cavity for the exit of the young
grasshoppers.
STRUCTURE OF THE OVIPOSITOR
The exposed part of the grasshopper’s ovipositor consists of a lower
and an upper pair of strong, sclerotic, pronglike processes with curved
tips turned ventrally and dorsally (fig. 1, Ovp). These processes
are respectively the first and third valvulae (fig. 17 A, IVI, 3V1).
The second valvulae (2V/) are small, and are ordinarily concealed
between the others, but they are not rudimentary in the sense of being
functionless structures. The ovipositor projects posteriorly at the
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Ap 274 2
\ \
\ \
22
}
2657" : /
t-- AY Y~~
-7\\\ WG, ~2T4
s75- \\ 7 a
iv FEY EY
PY ye Eee
\ Nee cao
Fic. 17—The ovipositor and its muscles. Dissosteira carolina.
A, ovipositor and muscles, left side. B, median section of ovipositor showing
mesal view of right valvulae and muscles. C, dorsal view of ovipositor and
muscles. D, ventral view of second and third valvulae, with apodemes, and
muscles of anterior intervalvula. E, ventral view of ventral valvulae, dorsal wall
of genital chamber with spermathecal aperture, and spermatheca.
a, lateral basivalvular sclerite; aiv, anterior intervalvula; Ap, apodeme of
ovipositor; b, c, first and second ventral basivalvular sclerites; e, f, apodeme
and apodemal sclerite of anterior intervalvula; g, base of third valvula; h,
ventral lip of apodemal invagination; 7, articular process on ramus of third
valvula; /XT, lateral parts of ninth tergum; piv, posterior intervalvula; ra,
ramus of third valvula; Spr, spermathecal aperture; Spt, spermatheca; SptD,
spermathecal duct; rV/, 2V1, 3V1, first, second, and third valvulae.
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 39
end of the abdomen (fig. 1) beyond the eighth sternum (VJI/Stn)
from beneath the lobes of the eleventh segment (Eppt, Papt), and
thus might appear to belong to the ninth and tenth segments ; the first
valvulae, however, are developed in the nymph from the eighth seg-
ment, immediately behind the eighth sternum (fig. 22 A, C, 1VI),
and the second and third valvulae from the ninth segment (A, C, D).
In the adult several basivalvular sclerites are differentiated from the
bases of the first valvulae (figs. 1, 17 A, a, b, c), which, though par-
tially overlapped by the eighth sternum, are entirely separated from
the latter by an inflection of the poststernal membrane that forms the
female genital chamber. Between the bases of the dorsal valvulae are
anterior and posterior intervalvular sclerites (fig. 17 B, aiv, piv) ; and
a pair of large apodemes projects forward in the body cavity from
the angles between the bases of the dorsal and ventral valvulae (A, B,
D, Ap). An important accessory of the acridid ovipositor is the egg
guide, a median process of the eighth sternum (fig. 20 A, eg).
The first, or ventral, valvulae of Dissosteira carolina (fig. 17 A,
B, E, 1V1) are somewhat elongate lobes, flattened from side to side,
ending each in a decurved point. Proximally they are united by the
membranous integument between their bases, and their ventral walls
are continued into the dorsal wall of the genital chamber (fig. 20 A).
Each first valvula is differentiated into a strongly sclerotic terminal
lobe (fig. 17 A, rV’1), and into a basal part containing a large lateral
basivalvular sclerite (a) and two narrow ventral sclerites (b, c). The
upper surface of the terminal lobe (B) is produced proximally as an
elongate plate, or ramus, at the end of which is a wide transverse de-
pression that fits closely upon a prominent abutment from the under
surface of the basal ramus of the corresponding third valvula (D, 7).
Proximal to this articulation the dorsal wall of the ventral valvula
is membranous and shortly ends at the ventral lip of the hollow base
of the lateral apodeme (Ap). The lateral basivalvular sclerite of the
first valvula (A, a) is a prominent plate exposed on the side of the
abdomen behind the eighth sternum (fig. 1). The posterior ventral
sclerite (fig. 17 A, B, b) is ordinarily partly exposed behind the
eighth sternum, but the anterior ventral sclerite (c) is concealed in
the dorsal wall of the genital chamber (fig. 20 A), where it flanks a
median channel containing the spermathecal aperture (fig. 17 E).
The third, or dorsal, valvulae of Dissosteira (fig. 17 A, B, 3V1)
resemble the ventral valvulae in general form, except that their points
are turned upward, but they are larger and stronger than the ventral
valvulae, and they have no basivalvular sclerites. Their dorsal surfaces
proximal to the upcurved points are broad and flat. The under surface
4.0 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of each dorsal valvula is prolonged anteriorly in a strong ventral ramus
(D, ra), the expanded base of which (g) is firmly hinged to the dorsal
lip of the exposed base (i) of the lateral apodeme of the same side.
The apodemal bases, therefore, are the fulcral points for the move-
ments of the dorsal valvulae. The ventral valvulae, on the other hand,
have their fulcra of movement on the strongly protruding articular
ridges (7) on the bases of the dorsal valvulae. The dorsal valvulae
are united between their bases by a membranous integument containing
the anterior intervalvula (D, aiv), the bases of the second valvulae
(2V1), and the posterior intervalvula (B, C, piv).
The second, or intermediate, valvulae (fig. 17 A, B, D, 2V/) are
short lobes projecting from the membrane between the ventral rami
of the dorsal valvulae. The two are adnate mesally for most of their
length, but their sclerotic lateral and terminal parts form free lobes en-
closing a trough-like depression between them (D). The united bases
of the second valvulae are supported on a median process of the an-
terior intervalvula (aiv).
The intervalvulae are small sclerites lying between the bases of the
dorsal valvulae, where, because of the position of the latter, they
become dorsal and ventral relative to each other. The ventral anterior
intervalvula (fig. 17 D, aiv) is a transverse sclerite bridging the space
between the anterior ends of the ventral rami of the third valvulae,
and giving support by a median process to the united bases of the
second valvulae. Just before the transverse sclerite is a small, oval,
median sclerite (f) bearing a short slender apodeme (e) on which are
attached the muscles of the anterior intervalvula. The posterior inter-
valvula is a small hexagonal plate lying dorsally between the bases of
the third valvulae (B, C, piv).
A characteristic feature of the acridid ovipositor is the presence of
the pair of long, flat, lateral apodemes (fig. 17D, Ap) extending
forward from the angles between the bases of the dorsal and ventral
valvulae. These apodemes are well developed also in Tetrigidae and
Tridactylidae, but they have no apparent homologues in the ovipositor
of other insects. They give attachment to the levator and depressor
muscles of the valvulae, to the muscles of the posterior intervalvulae,
and to the ventral dilators of the rectum, while the proctractor muscles
of the ovipositor are inserted on their anterior ends.
The stalk of each apodeme is hollow, and its base appears as the
strongly sclerotic lips of a transverse cleft in the angle between the
bases of the dorsal and ventral valvulae, where, as already observed,
the ventral ramus of the dorsal valvula is hinged to the dorsal lip of
the apodemal invagination. It might be supposed, therefore, that the
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 41
apodemes of the acridid ovipositor represent anterior apodemal proc-
esses of the second valvifers in other insects, but it is quite impossible
to reconcile the musculature of the acridid apodemes with that per-
taining to the second valvifers in the usual type of ovipositor. Accord-
ing to Walker (1919) the ovipositor apodemes of Melanoplus are
formed in the nymph as invaginations at the angles between the bases
of the valvulae. It is perhaps possible that they are highly developed
anterior apodemes of the ninth sternum (the latter being represented
by the intervalvulae), since the space between the bases of the dorsal
valvulae is bridged by the anterior intervalvula. It is significant that
the ventral dilators of the rectum, which in the male arise anteriorly
on the ninth sternum, take their origins in the female on the ovipositor
apodemes (fig. 17 B, 267).
The muscles of the acridid ovipositor function as protractors and
retractors of the entire organ, as levators and depressors of the first
and third valvulae, as abductors and adductors of the same valvulae,
and as motors of the second valvulae; but it appears that some of
them may act in more than one capacity. As above noted, it will be
fruitless to attempt to trace any homologies between these muscles
and the usual muscles of the ovipositor in other insects. It should be
observed, however, that with the absence of valvifers in the acridid
ovipositor there is correlated an absence of dorsal muscles correspond-
ing with those ordinarily inserted on the valvifers.
The exsertion of the ovipositor evidently is brought about by two
pairs of muscles inserted on the anterior ends of the lateral apodemes
(fig. 17 A, C, 256, 262). Of these muscles those of the first pair are
the short protractors (256) arising by wide bases on the anterior
lateral parts of the eighth abdominal tergum (fig. 13). The others
are the long protractors (fig. 17 C, 262) arising laterally on the pos-
terior margin of the ninth tergum (/X7T). Retraction of the ovi-
positor is accomplished apparently by a pair of ventral muscles of
the first valvulae, by lateral muscles of the third valvulae, and by
muscles of the anterior intervalvula. The retractors of the first val-
vulae arise anteriorly on the eighth sternum (fig. 13, 248) and in
Dissosteira are inserted on the anterior ventral basivalvular sclerites
(fig. 17 E, 248). In Melanoplus, however, these muscles are inserted
on anterior pockets of the genital chamber (fig. 20 C, 248). The re-
tractors of the third valvulae are lateral muscles arising anteriorly
on the ninth tergum (fig. 17 C, 263) and inserted posteriorly on the
lateral margins of the bases of the third valvulae. These muscles would
appear to act also as abductors of the valvulae. The retractors of the
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
anterior intervalvula (C, D, 247) are a pair of slender muscles aris-
ing anteriorly on the eighth sternum (fig. 13) ; they probably assist
also in the adduction of the valvulae.
The muscles that open the valvulae dorsoventrally consist of the
four huge bundles of fibers arising on the lateral apodemes, one pair
dorsally (fig. 17 A, B, 277), the other pair ventrally (272). The
dorsal muscles, which are the levators of the third valvulae, are in-
serted dorsally in the bases of these valvulae; the ventral muscles, or
depressors of the first valvulae, are inserted within the bases of the
first valvulae on the lateral basivalvular sclerites and on the posterior
ventral sclerites (A, E, a, b). These four powerful muscles of the
Ovipositor produce the movements of the valvulae by which the earth
is compressed peripherally in the digging of the egg chamber in the
ground.
The closing of the valvulae evidently is produced by muscles of
the anterior intervalvula, there being no muscles inserted on the
valvulae that directly oppose the opening muscles. The muscles of
the anterior intervalvula include the slender retractor muscles (fig.
17 C, D, 247) arising anteriorly on the eighth sternum (fig. 13), and
a pair of short, broad muscles (fig. 17 C, D, 273) arising on the ovi-
positor apodemes. Since the anterior intervalvula lies between the
bases of the dorsal and ventral valvulae, a pull on its muscles brings
the valvulae together. These same muscles also effect an adduction
of the valvulae of opposite sides.
Transverse movements of the valvulae, 7. e., movements of abduc-
tion and adduction, are not as pronounced as the dorsal and ventral
movements, but it can be shown experimentally on a dead specimen
that some of the muscles of the ovipositor separate or approximate the
valvulae of opposite sides. The only muscles that may serve as ab-
ductors of the valvulae are the retractor muscles inserted on the lateral
basal margins of the third valvulae (fig. 17 C, 263), which arise
laterally on the ninth tergum. The adductors are muscles of the inter-
valvulae ; a forward pressure on these sclerites brings the valvulae of
opposite sides together. The anterior intervalvular muscles comprise
the median pair of slender muscles (fig. 17 C, D, 247) arising an-
teriorly on the ninth sternum (fig. 13), and the lateral pair of wide
muscles (273) arising on the inner margins of the basal parts of the
lateral apodemes ; both pairs converge to their insertions on the small
median apodeme of the anterior intervalvula. The posterior inter-
valvular muscles consist of a single pair of muscles (B, C, 274)
arising on the bases of the lateral apodemes, and converging pos-
teriorly to their insertions on the posterior intervalvula (piv). There
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 43
are no tergal muscles in Acrididae corresponding with those inserted
on the intervalvulae in Gryllidae. (See Abdomen, Part II, Smith-
somian Misc. Coll., vol. 89, no. 8, fig. 17 E, H, 5, &.)
The second valvulae are provided with a pair of short muscles aris-
ing anteriorly on the anterior intervalvula (fig. 17 B, C, 275), and
inserted distally in the free ends of the second valvulae. These small
intermediate valvulae evidently are functional in guiding the eggs
properly between the other valvulae in their passage through the
ovipositor.
An important accessory of the acridid ovipositor is the egg guide.
This organ is a small, tapering median process arising from the re-
Fic. 18.—End of abdomen and ovipositor of Tettigidea lateralis.
A, terminal segments of abdomen, with ovipositor. B, left valvulae and
apodeme of ovipositor. C, ventral view of second and third valvulae, inter-
valvulae, and apodemes of ovipositor.
flected distal end of the eighth sternum (figs. 4, 13, eg) directly in
line with the opening of the oviduct (Gpr) in the floor of the genital
chamber. The egg guide normally projects between the bases of the
ventral valvulae, and serves to direct the eggs issuing from the gono-
pore upward and into the intervalvular space of the ovipositor. It is
an immovable process developed in the nymph as a median outgrowth
from the posterior margin of the eighth sternum.
The ovipositor of Tetrigidae, as illustrated by Tettigidea lateralis
(fig. 18), is of the acridid type of structure in that it is composed of
the first and third valvulae (B), and has a pair of lateral intervalvu-
lar apodemes (B, C, Ap) with muscles for opening the valvulae. The
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
second valvulae are small (C, 21) as in Acrididae and are supported
by the anterior intervalvula (aiv). The first and third valvulae, how-
ever, are longer and slenderer than in the typical acridid ovipositor,
and the apodemes are relatively short. Basivalvular sclerites are ab-
sent in Tettigidea, but Walker (1919) describes and figures basivalvu-
lar sclerites associated with the first valvulae in Acrydium ornatum,
and Chopard (1920) shows a lateral sclerite (pileolus) at the base
of the first valvula in Paramastax laeta. Walker describes also in
Acrydium a sclerite interposed between the base of the third valvula
and the lower edge of the ninth tergum, which he regards as a valvifer.
The ovipositor of the tridactylid genus Rhipipteryx, as Walker
(1919) observes, ‘is remarkably similar to that of the Acridoidea.”’
The female abdomen of RF. biolleyi is elongate and slender. The last
unmodified segment is the seventh (fig. 19 A, VIZ). The eighth seg-
ment, which is partly concealed within the seventh, has its tergum di-
vided into two lateral plates by a median membranous area of the
dorsum (A, B, V/IIT). The spiracles of this segment lie in the lower
parts of the tergal plates. The tergum of the ninth segment (A, 1X T)
consists of two widely separated lateral plates (E, JX T), the anterior
dorsal angles of which (C, E) are produced into a pair of slender
arms invaginated beneath the dorsal membrane of the eighth segment.
The tergum of the tenth segment (F, X7)) is broken up into two large
lateral tergites and a group of three small dorsal tergites. The lateral
tergites extend forward between the arms of the ninth tergal plates,
where they are united with each other anteriorly. The eleventh seg-
ment 1s represented by a shield-shaped epiproct (F, Eppt), and two
large projecting paraprocts (Papt) bearing each a terminal lobe
(paptl). The cerci (Cer) arise laterad of the epiproct at the bases of
the paraprocts.
The exposed part of the ovipositor of Rhipipteryx biolleyi consists
of four elongate conical processes (fig. 19 A, Ovp), which, as in
Acrididae and Tetrigidae, are the first and third valvulae. Each ventral
first valvula (C, 7V7) has an accessory tooth on its outer surface and
a large lateral basivalvular sclerite (a) at its base. The latter appears
on the side of the abdomen as a prominent plate behind the eighth
sternum (A, a). The dorsal third valvulae (C, 3/1) are somewhat
longer than the ventral valvulae, and each is supported on the distal
margin of the lateral tergite of the ninth segment (JXT), to which
it is articulated ventrally (E) by a condyle of the latter. Below and
between the bases of the dorsal valvulae are two small intermediate
second valvulae (E, 2/1), united at their bases by the anterior inter-
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN
SNODGRASS 45
valvula (aiv). Both anterior and posterior intervalvulae (E, aiv, piv)
are present in Rhipipteryx as in Acrididae and Tetrigidae, and a small
median sclerite (f) before the anterior intervalvula gives attachment
to a pair of convergent muscles (5).
The lateral apodemes of the ovipositor of Rhipipteryx are long
spatulate plates arising between the bases of the valvulae, but each is
more specifically connected with the corresponding ventral valvula
(fig. 19 D, Ap), rather than with the dorsal valvula as in Acrididae.
Walker describes the ovipositor apodemes of R. forcipata as shelflike
extensions of the lower edges of the ninth tergum, having the same
Frc. 19—Abdomen and ovipositor of Rhipipteryx biolleyi.
A, terminal half of abdomen with ovipositor. B, lateral view of eighth seg-
ment removed from seventh. C, left view of ninth segment and ovipositor. D,
mesal view of right ventral valvula, with right apodeme and muscles. E, ven-
tral view of ninth tergum supporting second and third valvulae. F, dorsal view
of tenth and eleventh segments, showing lobes (papt!) of paraprocts. (Letter-
ing as on fig. 17.)
relation to the valvulae as the free apodemes of Acrididae. The writer,
however, finds no tergal connections of the apodemes in R. biolleyi,
in which the structures appear to be identical with the intervalvular
apodemes of Acrididae. They give attachment to muscles very nearly
the same as those of the Acrididae in their distribution to the basival-
vulae (fig. 19 C, D, 1), the ventral valvulae (2), the ninth tergum
(C, 3), and the dorsal valvulae (C, E, 4).
THE FEMALE GENITAL CHAMBER AND THE SPERMATHECAL OPENING
The genital chamber, or copulatory pouch, of the female grass-
hopper is a flat horizontal invagination of the integument beneath the
bases of the ventral valvulae and above the posterior margin of the
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
eighth abdominal sternum (fig. 20 A, GC). The anterior basivalvular
sclerites of the first valvulae extend into its dorsal wall (figs. 17 E,
20 A, C, c), and in a depression between them is situated the aperture
of the spermatheca (Spr). The opening of the median oviduct, or
gonopore, lies anteriorly in the floor of the genital chamber (fig. 20 A,
Gpr). A short distance before the spermathecal and oviducal aper-
tures the genital chamber ends as a blind pouch. Here, in Dissosteira,
a pair of muscles from the eighth sternum have their insertions on the
ends of the anterior basivalvular sclerites (fig. 17 E, 248). In Mela-
noplus the anterior end of the genital chamber is provided with two
large lateral pockets (fig. 20 C, 7), and the muscles (248), inserted on
the basivalvular sclerites (c) in Dissosteira, are attached in Melano-
plus on the walls of the lateral pockets. Similar pockets of the genital
chamber in Anacridium aegyptium are described as “ vésicules ovi-
ductaires”’ by Vardé (1929), who shows from a study of their his-
tology that the pouches are glandular structures in this species.
The female genital chamber of insects generally is usually said to
be an invagination between the eighth and ninth abdominal sterna.
In the Acrididae, however, it is quite clearly an ingrowth between
the eighth sternum and the bases of the first gonopods, which are
located behind the sternum. This fact is noted by Nel (1929), who
observes that the genital chamber in the female of Colemania and
Locustana is ‘‘ formed at the hind margin of the eighth sternum by
the sternum overgrowing the bases of the anterior ovipositor lobes.”
The basal sclerites of the first valvulae thus come to lie in the dorsal
wall of the genital chamber.
The female gonopore of adult Acrididae, as above noted, is situated
on the floor of the genital chamber above the reflected posterior end
of the eighth abdominal sternum. It is an elongate median aperture
(figs. 4, 13, Gpr) between membranous folds that converge and unite
posteriorly on the dorsal surface of the base of the egg guide. The
oviductus communis (figs. 13, 20A, Odc) extends forward to the
seventh segment where it receives the lateral oviducts. The definitive
position of the female gonopore in Acrididae, it is claimed by Nel
(1929), is not the site of the primary invagination that gives rise to
the median oviduct. In late embryos of Locustana, Nel says, the
common oviduct first appears as an invagination of the conjunctival
membrane between the seventh and eighth segments (fig. 20 B, Odc’),
the aperture of which runs out as a groove on the venter of the eighth
segment. In this respect, therefore, the acridid appears to recapitulate
a more primitive condition permanently retained in Dermaptera. Dur-
ing the first nymphal stage of the grasshopper, as described by Nel,
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN
SNODGRASS 47
the gonopore undergoes a posterior transposition that gives it its defi-
nite location behind the eighth sternum. In the early part of the first
instar, Nel says, the oviduct opens on the extreme anterior part of the
eighth sternum in the groove extending posteriorly from its aperture.
During this instar the lips of the groove unite ventrally, the union pro-
ceeding from in front backward; the oviduct is thus extended pos-
y Le
Ode VIIStn G
Rect ae
Odl--\, Papt
3 \ \ \ x EN G. \
B vis vis xs v1 uy , ha
Fic. 20.—Structure and development of the female copulatory apparatus.
A, vertical section of end of abdomen of Dissosteira carolina just to left of
median plane, showing genital chamber (GC) invaginated between bases of
ventral valvulae and eighth sternum, with gonopore (Gpr) in its ventral wall
and spermathecal aperture (Spr) in its dorsal wall, the eighth sternum termi-
nating in the egg guide (eg). B, diagrammatic section of end of abdomen of
first instar nymph of Locustana (from Nel, 1929), showing origin of median
oviduct (Odc’) behind seventh sternum, and spermathecal invagination (Spt)
at end of eighth sternum. C, ventral view of first valvulae and dorsal wall of
genital chamber of Melanoplus femur-rubrum. D, spermathecal aperture of
Dissosteira carolina. E, same of Melanoplus mexicanus (structure variable in
this species).
teriorly, and its opening, the gonopore, migrates in the same direction,
until finally, in the second instar, it takes its definitive position in the
newly forming genital chamber behind the eighth sternum.
The typical acridid spermatheca is a long tubular organ extending
forward in the ventral sinus of the body cavity beneath the ventral
diaphragm (figs. 17 E, 20 A, Spt). The middle part is variously coiled,
and the tube ends in an enlarged bifid terminal section. The sperma-
theca of the grasshopper is formed as a median invagination:in a
4
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
groove of the body wall between the bases of the first valvulae (fig.
20 B, Spt), and, therefore, belongs to the eighth abdominal segment.
The usual bifid structure of the adult organ in insects suggests that
the spermatheca may have been paired in its origin, but one branch
is generally the sperm storage chamber, and the other a glandular
accessory.
The opening of the spermatheca in the dorsal wall of the genital
chamber in adult grasshoppers lies in a median channel of the mem-
branous space between the anterior basivalvular sclerites of the first
valvulae (figs. 17 E, 20 C, Spr). In Dissosteira carolina the aperture
is transverse above the posterior margin of a weakly sclerotic heart-
shaped sclerite (fig. 20 D, 7). Structural details associated with the
spermathecal opening, however, may be quite different in different
acridid species. In Melanoplus femur-rubrum, for example, the
spermatheca opens through a crescentic longitudinal slit in an oval
area or sclerite contained in a median pocket of the genital chamber
wall (fig. 20 C, Spr). Behind it are two small triangular sclerites (k)
in the wall of the pocket. In MW. mexicanus (FE) the aperture is a cleft
between two lateral lips of a thick oval body (m) projecting from a
depression in the wall of the genital chamber. It is possible that struc-
tural differences in the female spermathecal opening may be found to
be correlated with differences in the male intromittent organ, since
coition is effected by way of the spermathecal duct.
Accessory genital glands of the ninth abdominal segment are usually
not developed in the Acrididae. According to Nel (1929), however, a
small median invagination is formed between the ovipositor lobes of
the ninth segment in young nymphs of Locustana and Colemania
(fig. 20 B, AcG/), which becomes a short tube, but remains vestigial
even in the adult. The function of the usual female accessory glands
is assumed in Acrididae by a long tubular diverticulum of each lateral
oviduct, or more strictly of the oviducal calyx, in which is secreted
the frothy material of which the egg pod is formed.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVIPOSITOR
It is commonly assumed that the ovipositor of pterygote insects 1s
formed from the limb appendages of the eighth and ninth abdominal
segments, that the valvulae are processes of the appendage bases, and
that the usual supporting plates, or valvifers, are derived from the limb
bases themselves. There is no doubt that the organ is formed from
ventral outgrowths and sclerites of the two genital segments, but it
is quite a different matter to prove that these parts represent true
a a a
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 49
segmental appendages. Even the fact that the first rudiments of the
valvulae appear in some insects on the embryo in line with vestigial
appendages on the pregenital segments is not necessarily evidence that
they are homodynamous with the latter, since secondary structures
arising in the same relative positions as the true limbs would be very
likely to assume the same form in early stages of growth. The best
evidence of the origin of the ovipositor from limb structures is fur-
nished by the Thysanura, in which the valvulae are outgrowths of
lateroventral plates of the genital segments that are clearly equivalent
to the stylus-bearing plates present in some forms on the preceding
segments, which plates, there seems little reason to doubt, represent
the bases of true abdominal limbs. The ovipositor of Thysanura, there-
fore, appears to be formed of mesal processes (gonapophyses) of the
coxopodites of the appendages of the eighth and ninth abdominal seg-
ments, and the fundamental similarity of the ovipositor in Thysanura
and Pterygota leads us to conclude that the organ is an homologous
structure in all insects in which it occurs.
The facts of the development of the ovipositor in Orthoptera are
easy to ascertain and are in general well known. In a young nympth
of the cricket Nemobius (fig. 21 A) two small conical processes (V1)
project from the membranous ventral part of the eighth segment
behind the eighth sternum (VJ// Stn), entirely free from the latter.
These processes are the rudiments of the first valvulae. The valvulae
of the ninth segment are not yet in evidence ; the sternal region of this
segment (JXS) shows no differentiation except two slight rounded
swellings of its posterior margin. At a somewhat later stage (B, C),
however, a pair of valvular processes is present on each genital seg-
ment. Those of the eighth segment (B, V1) still arise from the mem-
brane behind the reduced eighth sternum (V/J//Stn). The processes
of the ninth segment (C, 3/1), on the other hand, which become the
third valvulae of the adult, arise directly from a median sclerotization
of the ventral wall of the segment, at the sides of which is a pair of
small but conspicuous oval lateral sclerites (4). There is thus no ster-
nal plate in the ninth segment distinct from the bases of the valvulae.
The two primary pairs of valvular processes increase in length with
successive instars (fig. 21 EF), and the rudimentary second valvulae
appear ventrally between the bases of the third valvulae (F, 2V/),
but the relations of the valvulae to their respective segmental areas
remain unaltered. Up to a late stage there is no evidence of the pres-
ence of valvifers, except for the small lateral sclerites (+) of the ninth
segment, which increase in size and become more dorsal in posi-
tion (F).
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
In the last nymphal stage of the cricket, as illustrated in Gryllus
(fig. 21 G), the valvifers appear as weak sclerotizations in the areas
previously membranous laterad of the bases of the valvulae. The
Fic. 21.—Development of the ovipositor of Gryllidae and Tettigoniidae.
A, ventral view of end of abdomen of very young nymph of Nemobius. B,
seventh and eighth sterna of Nemobius at later stage. C, ninth and postgenital
segments of same. D, end of abdomen and ovipositor of young nymph of
Neoconocephalus. E, late instar nymph of Nemobius. F, same, lower part of
ninth segment and valvulae. G, lower parts of genital segments with base of
Ovipositor of last nymphal instar of Gryllus, showing origin of first valvifer in
podial area of eighth segment. H, base of ovipositor of adult Gryllus assimilis.
I, same of Orocharis saltator. J, same of Neoxabia bipunctata. K, same of
Cyrtoxipha columbiana.
first valvifer (1V Jf) lies in the ample membrane of the eighth seg-
ment behind the small eighth sternum. Ventrally it is connected with
the base of the first valvula (1V7), and posteriorly it is prolonged as
a prominent lobe (y) inserted between the base of the third valvula
and the lateral sclerite (1) of the ninth segment, which latter is now
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 5!
closely associated with the lower margin of the ninth tergum. The
second valvifer (2V/f) is clearly differentiated in the ninth segment,
and has essentially the adult form (H, 2V/f). Between the bases of
the second and third valvulae of opposite sides are formed the small
median sclerites that become the intervalvulae of the ninth segment in
the adult.
Throughout the development of the gryllid ovipositor, it is to be
observed, there is a significant difference in the position of the parts
derived from the two genital segments. The first valvulae and the
first valvifers are developed from the ventral membrane of the
eighth segment entirely behind the eighth sternum. The sternal plate
of the eighth segment, therefore, does not contain the limb bases of
this segment. The valvifers and valvulae of the ninth segment, on
the other hand, arise from the entire ventral region of this segment,
except for a small median part from which are formed the inter-
valvulae. We may presume, therefore, that the apparent sternal region
of the ninth segment has a coxosternal composition, as have the usual
definitive sternal plates of the abdomen. The median sternal part
forms the intervalvulae ; the lateral coxal areas give rise to the valvulae
and valvifers. In each genital segment the dorsal muscles of the re-
spective valvifers arise on the tergum.
From the above it is evident that the facts of the development of
the ovipositor need “ interpretation’ to make them fit with the the-
oretical origin of the ovipositor from segmental limbs, but, it should
be observed, they are at least not inconsistent with this theory. It is
important to note, furthermore, that the first valvulae are the gona-
pophyses of the first gonopods, while the first formed processes of
the ninth segment are the third valvulae, which are elongations of the
coxopodites ; the second valvulae, or true gonapophyses of the ninth
segment, are of later development. This same order of development
of the ninth segment processes recurs in most insects with three valvu-
lar components in the ovipositor. In Gryllidae, as in Acrididae, the
second valvulae remain rudimentary.
The primitive segmental relations of the valvifers in Gryllidae are
somewhat confused in the final development of the basal mechanism of
the ovipositor. Each first valvifer, as we have seen, in the last nymphal
stage of Gryllus (fig. 21 G) has a posterior lobe (y) interposed be-
tween the base of the third valvula (3/7) and the small lateral sclerite
of the ninth segment (*), which latter has become closely associated
with the lower edge of the ninth tergum (JXT). In the adult cricket
(7) the sclerite x is solidly fused with the lobe y and thus becomes
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
virtually a part of the definitive first valvifer, by which the latter
articulates with the ninth tergum; but the sclerite acquires also a
flexible union with the second valvifer (2V/f), which gives the two
valvifers on the same side a point of motion on each other. This
same structure and mechanism occurs in other members of the same
family (1, J, K). In the Gryllidae, therefore, the definitive first valvi-
fer is a composite plate formed of the true first valvifer and of a small
dorsal sclerite derived from the coxopodite region of the ninth seg-
ment, and thus acquires its secondary articulations with the ninth
tergum and with the second valvifer. In the Tettigoniidae the valvifers
have a simpler structure, and in the nymph (fig. 21 D) each is a small
plate (1V lf, 2VIf) in its respective segment; those of the first pair
are entirely separated from the small eighth sternum (VJ//Stn).
It will now be of interest to study the development of the ovipositor
in a member of the Acrididae in order to discover 1f possible the nature
of the disparity, so evident in the adult structure, between the acridid
type of ovipositor and that characteristic of other insects. In a very
young nymph of Melanoplus (fig. 22 A) the ventral plates of both
genital segments are well developed and of approximately equal size.
Rudiments of the first valvulae are evident as a pair of flattened lobes
(1V1) slightly protruding from behind the sternum of the eighth
segment ; but the third valvulae (3/’/) already have the form of small
conical processes arising from the posterior part of the ninth sternum.
Here, then, we encounter again the same differences in the relations
of the valvulae to the sternal plates as was observed in Gryllidae and
Tettigoniidae, namely, the origin of the first valvulae behind the
sternum of their segment, and that of the third valvulae directly from
the sternal plate. At a later stage in the growth of Melanoplus (B, C)
the first valvulae have become conical processes, and the small second
valvulae (C, 2V1) have appeared between the bases of the third val-
vulae. From this stage to that of the adult but few external changes
take place in the ovipositor. The intervalvular sclerites are developed
medially before and behind the bases of the valvulae of the ninth
segment, the ninth sternal region becomes otherwise reduced, while
the eighth sternum increases its length and acquires a small median
process on its posterior border, which is to be the egg guide. The
valvulae take on the form characteristic of the adult, and those of
the first and third pairs become densely sclerotic in the mature insect.
The acridid ovipositor is thus seen to be an organ formed entirely
of the valvulae, there being no differentiation of valvifers in the cox-
opodite areas of either genital segment. In the eighth segment the
coxopodite areas must lie in the membrane behind the eighth sternum
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 53
(fig. 22 A), but they are never apparent as specific structures. The
coxopodites of the ninth segment, on the other hand, are evidently
contained in the posterolateral parts of the apparent ninth sternum
of the very young nymph (A, /XS) ; later they appear as distinct
membranous lateral areas (C, 1X Capd) from which the third valvulae
(3V1) project as direct continuations, and from which the small sec-
ond valvulae (2V1) arise medially as endite lobes. The coxopodite
areas remain membranous in the adult. The true sternal region of
\
IXCxpd
S
Fic. 22.—Development of the ovipositor of Acrididae.
A, ventral view of end of abdomen of first instar nymph of Melanoplus, show-
ing first valvulae as small lobes arising between eighth and ninth sterna, and
third valvulae as processes of ninth sternal plate. B, later stage of same, lateral
view. CC, same as last, ventral view, showing intermediate second valvulae.
D, valvulae of ninth segment seen as processes of the coxopodite areas, in which
valvifers are not formed in Acrididae.
the ninth segment becomes reduced to a narrow median band between
the bases of the valvulae, which includes the areas (D, aiv, piv)
in which finally will be formed the intervalvular sclerites.
From the above it seems clear that the peculiar feature of the acri-
did ovipositor is the lack of valvifer sclerites, a conclusion which
might be deduced also from the absence of dorsal muscles correspond-
ing with the tergovalvifer muscles of other insects. A different view
of the matter, however, has been taken by Nel (1929), who contends
that the manner and place of origin of the two first-formed pairs of
ovipositor processes leave no doubt that the latter are serially ho-
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
mologous, while the absence of median lobes between the processes of
the eighth segment shows that true gonapophyses are not developed
on the gonopods of this segment. Nel concludes, therefore, that the
first and third valvulae are developments of the gonocoxae, and that
the second valvulae have no morphological equivalents on the eighth
segment. As we have seen, however, the valvular processes of the
eighth and ninth segments do not have a similar place of origin rela-
tive to the sternal regions or plates of their segments, and that a com-
parison of the development of the ovipositor of Acrididae with that
of Gryllidae and Tettigoniidae shows clearly that the elements of the
usual ovipositor that are absent in the acridid organ are the valvifers,
which are the true representatives of the coxopodites. It may still
be difficult to prove that the first valvulae are gonapophyses homo-
dynamous with the second valvulae, and not coxal processes corre-
sponding with the third valvulae; but the identical relations of the
first and second valvulae to their respective valvifers in most insects,
and the fact that these valvulae constitute the usual blades in the shaft
of the ovipositor, to which the third valvulae are mere ensheathing
lobes, leaves little basis for questioning the apparent and generally
accepted homologies of the ovipositor components. There can be no
doubt, at least, that the prongs of the acridid ovipositor correspond °
with the valvulae of the ovipositor of other insects.
OVIPOSITION
The females of Acrididae lay their eggs in holes made by the ovi-
positor ; most species dig the egg cavity in the ground, a few bore into
decayed wood or into the stems of living plants. The ovipositor, there-
fore, is both an excavating and an egg-laying instrument. In pene-
trating an even soil the abdomen usually extends downward in a
slanting direction from the insect and then turns more or less parallel
with the surface of the ground (fig. 23 F) ; the curvature of the ex-
tended abdomen is perhaps attributable to the fact that the protractor
muscles of the abdominal sterna (fig. 8, 145-204) have no dorsal op-
position, since the external muscles of the back are transverse in posi-
tion and give a lateral twist to the segments on one another. The shape
of the burrow, however, is subject to much irregularity, especially |
where ovipositing insects are crowded on a small area, or where
obstacles are encountered in the soil. When the abdomen is fully
extended it may reach a length two or three times that of its usual
retracted condition. The great extension of the abdomen is made pos-
sible by the size of the conjunctival membranes ordinarily inflected
between the sclerotic parts of the segments (fig. 23 A, E).
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 55
The excavation of the egg cavity in the ground and the deposition
of the eggs therein have frequently been described in a general way,
but the process has been closely studied in the case of Anacridium
aegyptium by Fedorov (1927), who confined females of this species
in cages each having a narrow, glass-walled extension of the floor,
7mm wide, filled with earth. The diameter of the female’s abdomen
being 7 mm, the procedure of digging and oviposition could be ob-
served and photographed.
The female grasshopper, according to Fedorov’s account, at the be-
ginning of excavation arches her abdomen upward and directs the tip
of the ovipositor downward against the soil. The valves of the ovi-
positor now begin opening and closing, making a hole in the earth,
and the ovipositor gradually enters deeper and deeper, while the ab-
domen extends. The lengthening of the abdomen is accompanied by
an unfolding of the conjunctival membranes principally between seg-
ments IV and V, V and VI, and VI and VII, and to a lesser degree
of those between segments J// and JV, and VII and VIII. The seg-
ments beyond the eighth do not extend, but are even more closely
drawn together than usual. The entire extended abdomen may reach
a length of 9 or 10 cm, its ordinary length being about 3$ cm. While
digging, the part of the abdomen beyond the sixth segment twists
through an angle of go°, now to one side, now to the other. The
entire process of excavating the cavity in suitable earth without special
obstacles takes from 1 to 14 hours. “ The whole complex work of
digging,’ Fedorov says, “ may be analyzed as consisting of the follow-
ing simple movements: (1) putting the valves of the ovipositor to-
gether, (2) a jerk downward, and (3) opening the valves; apart
from that the ovipositor is turned by muscles now to the left, now to
the right.”
Most observers of ovipositing grasshoppers have been much puzzled
to understand the mechanism of the digging apparatus, or particularly
the means by which the abdomen is extended to such a great length
and apparently with sufficient force to penetrate the earth. Kunckel
d’Herculais (1894) noted that the fully extended abdomen of Schisto-
cerca peregrina has a length of 8 cm, while the retracted abdomen,
though filled with eggs, is only 5 cm long. On dissecting specimens
with the abdomen protruded at maximum length he found the ali-
mentary canal to contain air; by letting out the air the abdomen could
be restored to its ordinary size. Hence he concluded that the digging
insects swallow air into the alimentary tract in order to give the
abdomen the necessary extension, the surrounding blood serving to
regulate the pressure. Contrary to the opinion of most writers,
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Kunckel d’Herculais says, the muscles play only a secondary role in
the expansion of the abdomen. It has been suggested also that the
abdomen is distended by blood pressure created by a contraction of
the thorax, but Grasse (1922) observes that there is no external evi-
dence of any such contraction. A contraction of the tergosternal
abdominal muscles might be supposed to extend the abdomen length-
wise, but these muscles could not produce the extreme elongation
Fic. 23.—Oviposition of Acrididae.
A, Schistocerca peregrina, showing extent to which the female abdomen can
be pulled out without tearing the conjunctival membranes (from Vosseler, 1905).
B, C, two attitudes of Chrysochraon dispar ovipositing in cut ends of raspberry
stems (from photographs by Ramme, 1927). D, E, diagrams showing relative
lengths of retracted and extended abdomen of Chrysochraon dispar (from Ramme,
1927). F, grasshopper ovipositing in the ground, showing usual position of ab-
domen (from Walton, 1916).
attained during the digging process. Grasse maintained that the ex-
planation of Kiinckel d’Herculais is correct, since he was able to
demonstrate the extension of the abdomen by gently inflating the ali-
mentary canal with a pipette inserted into the mouth of the insect and
ligatured in the oesophagus through a hole at the back of the head.
However, a different explanation of the abdominal extension has been
proposed by Fedorov (1927), who says: ‘* When the abdomen is fully
extended it becomes obvious that the expansion is due to the air-sacs ;
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 7
oat
one can see that the rhythmical movements of the abdomen, which ap-
parently facilitate the work of the spiracles, result in the filling of the
sacs with air, in their expansion and in the expansion of the abdomen.”
In his summary Fedorov definitely states: ‘“ Inflation of the air-sacs is
the cause of the expansion of the abdomen.”
Without having made more than casual observations on egg-laying
female grasshoppers, the writer, after studying carefully the mechan-
ism of the ovipositor, has no hesitation in saying that the above ex-
planations of the extension of the abdomen during the digging process
are not only highly improbable, but are quite unnecessary. It is true
that the muscles of the abdomen are entirely inadequate to distend the
telescopic abdominal tube to the length observed, and, as we have
seen, the protractor muscles that are present are limited to the sternal
region. Furthermore, the writer has frequently observed that females
of Dissosteira carolina taken in late summer and fall have all the mus-
cles of the visceral part of the abdomen in a very lax and apparently
' semidegenerate condition, contrary to what is found in the male. There
is no reason to doubt the observations of Kiinckel d’Herculais that
the alimentary canal contains air during the digging process, or that
of Grasse that an inflation of the food tract will distend the abdomen :
nor is there any reason to question the statement of Fedorov that the
air sacs become expanded as the abdomen lengthens. It is, however,
quite too much to believe that the observed inflation of the alimentary
canal or of the air sacs could be the means by which the abdomen is
thrust out with sufficient pressure against the ovipositor to drive the
latter into the ground. Insects can and do swallow air in sufficient
amount to distend the body, as in moulting, but there is no demon-
strated mechanism by which they can pump air into the air sacs and
distend these delicate vesicles against any considerable opposing
pressure.
An examination of the mechanism of the grasshopper’s ovipositor
shows that the latter is an organ fully competent to dig its own way
into the ground; it is a boring machine, which, once set in motion
with its prongs against the soil, must automatically bury itself, and
in so doing it will stretch the easily extended abdomen to its full
capacity, so long as the insect maintains its hold on the surface of
the ground. There is thus no question of the abdomen forcing the
ovipositor into the earth; the ovipositor digs the hole and pulls the
abdomen in after it. The extension of the abdomen undoubtedly in-
volves a distention of the air sacs, and is probably facilitated by an
active swallowing of air on the part of the insect; in fact, if the ab-
domen is actually increased in bulk by the drawing apart of its seg-
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ments, it becomes a matter of necessity that there should be a com-
pensation from some source, and the expansion of the air sac would
take place automatically as in the inspiratory phase of breathing. The
observed filling of the stomach and air sacs with air, therefore, is
certainly not the active cause of the elongation of the abdomen; it
seems much more probable that the inflation of these organs, fol-
lowed by a closure of the mouth and spiracles, serves to maintain
the extension of the abdomen when the valvulae of the ovipositor are
closed, since the latter has then no means of holding its position in
the earth.
If we consider the several digging movements of the ovipositor con-
cisely enumerated by Fedorov, we can readily correlate them with mus-
cles in the motor apparatus. The preliminary closing of the valvulae is
effected by the muscles of the anterior intervalvula (fig. 17 D, C, 247,
273); the downward thrust must be produced by the protractors
inserted on the ends of the lateral apodemes (C, 256, 262) ; the open-
ing of the valvulae is the work of the powerful levators and depressors
(A, B, 271, 272) ; the twisting movements of the abdomen are ac-
complished by the transverse outer dorsal muscles between the suc-
cessive tergal plates (fig. 11 B, C). In addition to these muscles there
are the lateral retractors of the dorsal valvulae (fig. 17 C, 263), evi-
dently capable of pulling the ovipositor back into the genital segments.
The muscular equipment of the ovipositor, therefore, is such that there
is no need to invoke any other mechanism to account for the operation
of the digging apparatus and the stretching of the abdomen than that
of the ovipositor itself.
Species of Acrididae known to oviposit in dead wood or in the stems
of plants include Chloealtis conspersa Harris of North America, and
Chrysochraon dispar Germ. of Europe. Females of Dissosteira caro-
lina are often to be seen along railroad tracks with the end of the
abdomen inserted into a decayed part of a tie, though, so far as
the writer knows, there is no record of their eggs being deposited in
such places.
Chloealtis conspersa is said by Scudder (1874) to select for ovi-
position short sticks of decaying, charred, or pithy wood, but never
to choose upright pieces of timber. ‘‘ The holes,’’ Scudder says, “ are
pierced at a slight angle to the perpendicular, away from the insect ;
they are straight for about a quarter of an inch, then turn abruptly and
run horizontally along the grain for about an inch. The eggs (from 10
to 14 in number) are almost always laid in the horizontal portion of
the nest.’ Blatchley (1920) also records observations on the wood-
excavating habits of the same species. One female he discovered in
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 59
the act of boring a hole in the upper edge of the topmost board of a
six-plank fence. ‘ The abdomen,” he says “ was curved downward,
and the toothed forcipate valves of the ovipositor used as pincers with
which small pieces of wood were broken off.” Within a distance of
30 feet on the top boards of the same fence, which were perfectly
sound pine, he found 15 other holes, but none of them contained eggs,
the wood apparently being too hard for the proper completion of
the borings. Cavities made in stumps and logs, however, were found
to have eggs in the horizontal part of each.
The oviposition habits of Chrysochraon dispar have been recorded
by Ramme (1927), who says that all nests found in the neighborhood
of Berlin except one were in stems of raspberry bushes, though other
observers report finding them in rotten poplar stumps and in broken
stems of Angelica sylvestris. Ramme studied the insects in cages,
where they were supplied with short pieces of raspberry stems stuck
into moist sand. A female about to oviposit, he says, crawls up a
stem; reaching the cut top she examines the pith with her antennae,
and then climbs over the top and down the opposite side a short dis-
tance. As soon as the ovipositor touches the pith it begins digging into
the latter, and soon forms a hole in which the end of the abdomen dis-
appears (fig. 23 B); deeper and deeper it sinks until after a half
hour or an hour the cavity is completed (C). Woody as well as fresh
stems are accepted. When the boring is finished, the abdomen is
buried to the fourth or at least to the middle of the fifth segment (I).
The length of the abdomen beyond this point is ordinarily only 1 or
ti cm (D), but during the digging process it may be stretched to a
length of 4 cm. In cages Ramme found that the insects were unable
to penetrate the stems unless they had access to the cut tops of the
latter, from which he concludes that in nature they must use injured
or broken canes. In each nest 12 to 30 eggs are deposited, placed
obliquely one above the other.
The action of the ovipositor in manipulating the eggs issuing from
the oviduct has not received as much attention from students of
acridian behavior as have the processes of digging and oviposition.
Judging from the anatomical relation of the gonopore to the egg guide
and the ovipositor (fig. 20 A), it is clear that an issuing egg must be
conducted by the egg guide posteriorly and upward between the bases
of the free parts of the ventral valvulae. The eggs are normally so
oriented in the oviduct that the anterior pole (the head end of the
future embryo) is anterior ; the protruding egg, therefore, has its pos-
terior pole directed posteriorly and upward. Riley (1878) says the
- 66
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
newly emerging egg is received between the closed valvulae, and he
figures it as being extruded upward and posteriorly from between the
dorsal valvulae; at least, he assures us, this is what we should see
if we could manage to watch a female” during oviposition. If the
female grasshopper habitually curves the end of her abdomen forward,
as shown in Riley’s familiar illustration, the eggs extruded in this
way would naturally take the proper position in the nest with their
anterior ends upward and sloped toward the exit. Most studies of
the egg cavity, however, show that the burrow, when unobstructed,
extends obliquely downward and backward from the insect. In this
case the eggs must be tilted in a direction opposite that of their first
position, namely, with the anterior pole upward and forward, if the
young grasshopper is to have an easy escape from the nest.
Observations by Giardina (1901) on the extrusion of the eggs by
females of Pamphagus marmoratus, which oviposited on the bottoms
of cardboard boxes in which they were confined, seem to show that
each egg is revolved through an angle of 45° as it leaves the ovipositor.
Giardina observes that each egg issuing from the oviduct is conducted
by the egg guide posteriorly and upward into the ovipositor, where
it is at first received and held in this position between the ventral
valvulae ; but at this time the upper and lower valvulae are wide open,
and the prongs of the lower valvulae are somewhat separated. Now,
however, the valves suddenly close, and the egg is thrust between the
dorsal valvulae, where it remains suspended until the arrival of the
next egg, which causes the first to take a horizontal position with the
posterior pole directed backward. Finally, with the advent of a third
egg, the first, already liberated from the ovipositor, receives another
push, which tilts it into a third position in which the anterior pole is
directed upward and forward, 7. e., obliquely toward the upper wall
and the exit of the nest (fig. 23 F).
The issuing eggs are always accompanied by a large amount of
viscous frothy material, which soon hardens and forms the much-
vacuolated mass enclosing the eggs, known as the “ egg pod.” The
foamy nature of the egg covering is said to be imparted to the liquid
fresh substance by movements of the valvulae. The female Acrididae
lack the usual accessory glands of the genital apparatus that ordinarily
form whatever adhesive or covering material is extruded with the
eggs ; the substance of the acridid egg pods is produced in long glandu-
lar diverticula of the anterior ends of the large calyces of the lateral
oviducts, and is discharged with the eggs through the gonopore.
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 61
VI. THE EXTERNAL MALE GENITALIA
The external genital structures of the male are so different in the
grasshoppers from these organs in other Orthoptera that little attempt
will be made here to establish homologies between the acridid organs
and the various types of genital structures found in the other orthop-
teroid families. Walker (1922) has presented a plausible though
theoretical scheme for tracing the evolution of the male organs in
the Orthoptera, and his ideas will be discussed in a future, more
general paper. The acridid genitalia have been but little studied from
a comparative standpoint, and only one writer (Hubbell, 1932) has
attempted to make use of their characters for taxonomic purposes.
The basic structure of the organs is surprisingly alike throughout the
family, but there can be no doubt that distinctive specific variations
are well marked in many cases.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE MALE GENITALIA IN ACRIDOIDEA
The terminal part of the adult male abdomen in both Acrididae and
Tetrigidae is characterized by a great enlargement of the ninth ster-
num, and by a partial or complete separation of the latter into a
proximal part and a distal part that are more or less movable on
eachpotner (fies. 27 A; 32-A. 35 A. 26°58, 30,4, EXS, IXSi)e athe
proximal sternal plate (J/X.S) may be designated the ninth sternum
proper; the distal lobe (XSL) is the male subgenital plate. Styli
are absent in all Acridoidea, but if they were present on the ninth
abdominal segment they undoubtedly would be carried by the genital
lobe of the sternum, and for this reason the lobe is sometimes re-
garded as representing the united coxopodites of the ninth segment.
Since, however, in the young male nymph there is no suggestion of
the later division of the ninth sternum, it seems probable that the
two sternal plates of the adult are the result of a secondary subdivision
of the usual coxosternum of the ninth segment without reference to
its more primitive composition.
The subgenital lobe of the ninth sternum is usually turned upward
on the end of the proximal plate, and its dorsal margin may be tightly
closed against the lobes of the eleventh segment (figs. 29 A, 30 A,
34 A). More generally, however, there is continued forward from
the free margin of the subgenital plate a thick membrane, the pallium
(fig. 33 A, Pal), which presents a rounded or hoodlike dorsal surface
closing the space between the upper end of the genital plate and the
eleventh segment. Behind the latter the pallium is always deeply
inflected to form the posterior wall of the genital chamber (fig. 24 A,
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Pal’). In the Tetrigidae the exposed dorsal part of the pallium forms
a long valvelike flap containing two elongate plates (fig. 27 A, B,
Pil’lv). In Tettigidea the plates are separated by a median mem-
branous line (B), but in Acrydium and Paratettix, according to
Walker (1922), the pallial valve is armed between the plates with a
pair of bars terminating anteriorly in upcurved hooks.
The male genital chamber of the Acrididae (fig. 24 A, GC) has
the usual relations of the male genital pouch to the ninth and tenth
ae Pine
Lene Papt An Pal
| uy i
Fic. 24—Diagrams showing the general structure of the male genitalia of
Acrididae.
A, vertical longitudinal section of end of male abdomen somewhat to left of
median plane, showing the organs contained in the genital chamber (GC), and
the endophallus (Enph) projecting into the body cavity. B, the aedeagus and
its basal apodemes. C, the aedeagus and endophallus.
Aed, aedeagus; An, anus; Apa, aedeagal apodeme; bf, basal fold; Dey, ductus
ejaculatorius; dl, dorsal lobe of aedeagus; ejs, ejaculatory sac; Enph, endophal-
lus; Epph, epiphallus; Eppt, epiproct; GC, genital chamber; /XS', sternum of
ninth abdominal segment; /X. SL, genital lobe of ninth sternum; Pal, pallium;
Pal', inner fold of pallium; Papt, paraproct; Phtr, pallotreme (external opening
of endophallus) ; Rect, rectum; sps, spermatophore sac of endophallus ; v/, ventral
lobe of aedeagus; XT, tergum of tenth abdominal segment, X./”, venter of tenth
segment. (For alphabetical lettering see fig. 25.)
abdominal segments—that is, it is an invagination cavity between
the end of the ninth sternum and the venter of the tenth segment.
Owing to the vertical position of the subgenital plate, however, and
the forward extension of the pallium from the latter, the opening of
the cavity is dorsal between the eleventh segment and the inflected
margin of the pallium. The anterior part of the genital chamber is
covered by the ventral walls of the tenth and eleventh segments, the
posterior part by the hood of the pallium. The floor of the chamber
usually slopes downward posteriorly from the venter of the tenth
segment (X./’) to the base of the inner pallial fold (Pal’).
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 63
The phallic organs of the Acrididae consist of a complex of struc-
tures arising from the floor of the genital chamber (fig. 24 A), and
ordinarily they are entirely enclosed within the genital chamber.
Posteriorly is the intromittent organ, or aedeagus (Aed), which has
an upright position and is lodged in the pocket beneath the pallial
hood. In front of the aedeagus is a broad sloping area of the genital
chamber floor, often rounded and elevated, which rises posteriorly
in a prominent transverse basal fold (bf) that more or less conceals
the proximal part of the aedeagus. In the anterior pocket of the
genital chamber, seated transversely on the floor of the latter beneath
the venter of the tenth abdominal segment, is the epiphallus (Epph),
a large irregular sclerite characteristic of the Acrididae.
The aedeagus (fig. 24 A, Aed) is a complex organ, somewhat
variable in the relative size and shape of its parts in different genera,
but having a constant basic structure that can be recognized in all
cases without difficulty. It consists essentially of an irregular dorsal
lobe (dl), and of a simple ventral lobe (vl). Because of the vertical
position of the organ the dorsal lobe is anterior and the ventral lobe
posterior. These two principal parts of the acridid aedeagus are
apparently to be identified with corresponding lobes of the intromit-
tent organ in Tettigoniidae; the ventral lobe is the most constant
structural feature of the diverse copulatory apparatus of Blattidae,
Mantidae, Tettigoniidae, and Gryllidae, since it always has the form
of a soft or partly sclerotized flap projecting below the external
genital opening. In the Acrididae the outer genital aperture, or phallo-
treme, is a vertical cleft in the entire length of the ventral (posterior )
surface of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus (figs. 24 C, 37C, Phtr),
but the ventral lobe (vl) projects beneath its proximal part, and thus
has the same relation to the genital opening as has the corresponding
lobe in the families above mentioned.
The dorsal lobe of the aedeagus is divided typically into a broad
proximal part (fig. 24 B, m), and a smaller, usually cylindrical distal
part (r), from the end of which there project two pairs of apical
processes (n, ~). In some forms, however, the distal part of the
aedeagus is small or absent, and in such cases the apical processes are
generally relatively large (fig. 31 C) and are carried directly by the
proximal part (7). The distal part of the dorsal lobe is best developed
in the Cyrtacanthacrinae (fig. 37 A). Both the distal and the proximal
parts of the dorsal lobe are deeply cleft posteriorly by the phallotreme
(figs. 24 C, 37 C, Phtr), which invades the extremity of the organ
between the apical processes, and extends proximally to the base of
the ventral lobe.
5
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q4
The lateral walls of the proximal part of the dorsal aedeagal lobe
(fig. 24 B, m) are usually strongly sclerotized and are often produced
dorsally in a pair of rounded lobes. The lateral sclerotizations are
continued anteriorly into a pair of large aedeagal apodemes (Apa)
invaginated in deep lateral pockets beneath the basal fold (A, B, bf)
that arches over the base of the aedeagus. Within the dorsal part of
this fold, in the wall of its ventral lamella, the bases of the apodemes
are solidly united with each other by a strong, transverse sclerotic
bridge, or sygoma (B, 2). The aedeagal apodemes are the “ enda-
pophyses”’ of Walker (1922), and the zygoma the “arch of the
endapophyses.” The aedeagal apodemes give attachment to muscles
inserted on the walls of the endophallus.
The ventral lobe of the aedeagus has the form of a broad trough-
like fold (fig. 24 A, vl), usually membranous though sometimes more
or less sclerotized, extending upward from the floor of the genital
chamber at the base of the inner fold of the pallium (Pal’), and
closely embracing the base of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus. It thus
conceals the lower part of the phallotreme. The ventral aedeagal lobe
is termed the “ subventral lobe” by Walker (1922).
The most highly developed and characteristic feature of the acridid
phallic apparatus is a large endophallic structure deeply invaginated
from the phallotreme into the ventral part of the ninth abdominal
segment (fig. 24 A, C, Enph). The walls of the endophallus are
covered by broad plaques of muscle fibers, which give the structure
the appearance of a strong muscular bulb (fig. 25 C, E, F). It is
necessary to remove these muscles in order to study the skeletal details
of the endophallus as presented in the following descriptions.
The long, vertical, slitlike phallotreme opens directly into a laterally
compressed cavity of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus. At the base
of the latter this open cleft passes into a short tubular meatus, which
leads into a large inner chamber of the endophallus. In each lateral
wall of the phallotreme cleft are two elongate parallel sclerites (fig.
24C, 0, q), from the outer ends of which project the external apical
processes (7, p). The dorsal (anterior) sclerites (0) end proximally
in the meatus, where they are connected with each other by a strong
transverse arch (ft) in the dorsal wall of the passage. The ventral
(posterior) sclerites (q) extend proximally beyond the dorsal sclerites
a short distance, where they become much narrowed, and then each
makes an abrupt sigmoid flexure (s) dorsally in the lateral wall of
the meatus, beyond which it expands anteriorly as a large plate (w)
in the lateral wall of the endophallic chamber. The anterior end of
each lateral endophallic plate is produced beyond the lumen of the.
Fic. 25——Male genitalia of Dissosteira carolina.
A, the phallic organs exposed by removal of tenth and eleventh segments and
dorsal and lateral parts of ninth segment. B, lateral view of epiphallus and
aedeagus with supporting floor of genital chamber. C, lateral view of phallic
organs after removal of muscles 266 and 267 (A), showing muscles of endo-
phallic bulb. D, dorsal view of phallic organs and floor of genital chamber.
FE, aedeagus and endophallic bulb, ventral view. F, same, dorsal view. G,
median section of aedeagus and endophallus, with terminus of ejaculatory duct.
H, lateral view of endophallus, distal part of aedeagus, and terminus of ejacu-
latory duct, muscles removed.
For abbreviations, see fig. 24. g, sclerites giving insertion to retractor muscles
(261); h, lateral lobe of epiphallus; i, bridge of epiphallus; 7, anterior
process of epiphallus; k, posterior process of epiphallus; m, proximal part of
dorsal lobe of aedeagus; n, anterior (dorsal) apical process of aedeagus; 0,
anterior (dorsal) lateral sclerite of phallotreme cleft; p, posterior (ventral )
apical process of aedeagus; q, posterior (ventral) lateral sclerite of phallotreme
cleft; 7, distal part of dorsal lobe of aedeagus; s, arm of posterior phallotreme
sclerite (q) continuous with endophallic plate («); t, bridge of anterior phallo-
treme sclerites (0); wu, lateral plate of endophallus; w, anterior apodeme of
endophallic plate; x, dorsal edge of endophallic plate; vy, gonopore process of
endophallic plate; s, zvgoma of aedeagal apodemes.
05
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
endophallus as a broad apodeme (zw) for muscle attachments. The
endophallic plates are the “ endoparameres ”’ of Walker (1922), who
believes that they are representatives of external or variously invagi-
nated plates or processes (“‘ parameres’’) of other Orthoptera. By
comparison with Tettigoniidae it does appear probable that the endo-
phallus of Acrididae is produced as an invagination of the posterior
surface of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus.
The cavity of the endophallus is mostly a narrow vertical space
between the lateral endophallic plates, but its posterior membranous
part, somewhat expanded behind the oblique posterior margins of
the lateral plates, forms a distinct section of the lumen, and may be
designated the spermatophore sac (fig. 24C, sps). The ejaculatory
duct (Dej) opens into the ventral part of the spermatophore sac
through a terminal ejaculatory sac (ejs). The aperture between the
two sacs is the true gonopore. Dorsally the spermatophore sac com-
municates with the phallotreme cleft in the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus
through the meatus at the base of the latter. From the lower anterior
angle of each lateral endophallic plate a long process (y) projects
backward in the membranous connecting wall between the spermato-
phore sac and the ejaculatory sac. The two processes thus closely
embrace the gonopore (fig. 29 E, F, fig. 33 C), and, as will be shown
later, by the action of the endophallic muscles they regulate the open-
ing and closing of the gonopore. Lateral vesicles of the ejaculatory
sac, such as are present in most other Orthoptera, are absent in the
Acrididae.
The curious sclerite known as the epiphallus is a very prominent
feature of the acridid genitalia. It is situated on the floor of the
anterior pocket of the genital chamber beneath the venter of the
tenth and eleventh segments (fig. 24 A, Epph), and is separated from
the aedeagus by the sloping surface that culminates posteriorly in the
hoodlike fold (bf) covering the base of the aedeagus. The morpho-
logical nature of the epiphallus is doubtful, since the sclerite cannot
be satisfactorily identified with any part of the phallic structure
in other insects. The plate is termed the “ pseudosternite” by
Walker (1922) and by Ford (1923). It has muscular connections
both with the ninth sternum and with the zygoma of the aedeagal
apodemes. In form the epiphallus is an irregular transverse sclerite
(fig. 31 B) consisting of two expanded lateral lobes (h, h) connected
by a narrow median bridge (i). Anteriorly the lateral lobes bear a
pair of hooklike processes (7) directed forward, and posteriorly each
is produced upward in a large thick irregular transverse process (F).
Closely associated with the epiphallus laterally are two small oval
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 67
sclerites (g) in the floor of the genital chamber (figs. 25 D, 33 B,
35 B), on which are inserted strong muscles (261) from the lateral
parts of the ninth abdominal tergum.
The aedeagus is ordinarily entirely concealed within the posterior
part of the genital chamber beneath the hood of the pallium (fig.
24 A). In the protracted condition, however, the organ is exposed
by a retraction of its coverings (fig. 33 B). The genital lobe of the
ninth sternum (/XSL) is now depressed, and the pallium is turned
inside-out, appearing in this condition as a large posterior fold (Pal)
around the base of the aedeagus, while the basal fold of the genital
chamber floor (bf) correspondingly embraces the aedeagus anteriorly ;
the epiphallus (Epph) has emerged from its pocket beneath the
eleventh segment, and stands boldly exposed on the projected floor
of the genital chamber anterior to the ensheathing folds of the
aedeagus.
The exsertion of the phallic organs would appear to be accomplished
by pressure resulting from a contraction of the pregenital part of the
abdomen, since there are no muscles connected with the genital organs
capable of producing the protracted condition of the latter (fig. 33 B).
The aedeagus apparently is held in the position of retraction by a
broad sheet of muscles on each side (fig. 25 A, 260) arising medially
on the ninth abdominal sternum and attached dorsally on the lateral
margins of the genital chamber floor. To be exserted, the aedeagus
must first be drawn forward from the pocket of the pallium; its
release from the latter evidently is effected by the contraction of the
strong muscles (D, 261) inserted on the small sclerites (g) at the
sides of the epiphallus, which take their origins on the lateral parts
of the ninth tergum. The epiphallus itself is provided with a pair of
large muscles (A, 267) arising medially on the ninth sternum, which
curve upward around the anterior end of the endophallic bulb and
insert on the lateral lobes (i) of the epiphallus. It is probable that
a contraction of these muscles brings about an elevation of the distal
parts of the phallic apparatus, and that pressure from within the
abdomen then protrudes the aedeagus. A second pair of epiphallic
muscles (B, 278) arises posteriorly on the zygoma of the aedeagal
apodemes and extends anteriorly to the lateral lobes of the epiphallus.
The action of these muscles is not clear, but the muscles undoubtedly
play some part in the function of the epiphallus in copulation.
The following description of the musculature of the aedeagus and
endophallus is based on a study of Dissosteira carolina, but a cursory
examination of the other species suggests that the musculature and
mechanism of the acridid male organs are the same throughout the
family.
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Two pairs of small muscles lie within the aedeagus, both arising
within the base of the latter (fig. 25 B); those of one pair (279)
extend dorsally to the lateral plate (mm) in the proximal part of the
dorsal lobe, those of the other pair (280) are attached distally on
the ventral lobe. The other muscles of the aedeagus include the epi-
phallic muscles (275) already mentioned, which arise on the zygoma
of the apodemes, and muscles that functionally pertain to the
endophallus.
The endophallus is mostly ensheathed in broad muscle plaques,
which make of the organ a strong muscular bulb, into which opens
the ejaculatory duct. The endophallic musculature comprises dilator
Daa) EG Eppt Papi
We ae oe
/ / | \
De}j 267 IXS_ ejs
Fic. 26.—Median vertical section of the end of the male abdomen of Dissosteira
carolina showing the retracted position of the phallic organs.
and compressor muscles of the endophallus, and compressors of the
ejaculatory sac. The dilators of the endophallus include a pair of lat-
eral muscles (fig. 25 C, E, 28r) anda pair of dorsal muscles (F, 282).
The lateral dilators are wide sheets of muscle fibers arising dorsally
on the aedeagal apodemes (C, Apa), and extending ventrally and
anteriorly to the outer surfaces of the anterior apodemes of the lateral
endophallic plates (C, E, w). The dorsal dilators, which likewise are
broad sheets of fibers (F, 282), arise laterally on the inner margins
of the aedeagal apodemes and are inserted mesally on the dorsal
margins (4) of the endophallic plates. The single compressor muscle
of the endophallus consists of a thick mass of fibers stretched trans-
versely over the anterior end of the endophallic bulb (EF, F, G, 283)
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 69
between the inner faces of the anterior apodemes of the lateral plates.
The compressors of the ejaculatory sac are broad plaques of fibers
closely applied to the lateral walls of the endophallus (C, E, 284) ;
each arises on the entire outer wall of the lateral endophallic plate,
and its fibers converge ventrally to their insertions on the lateral wall
of the ejaculatory sac. In some cases a distinct branch of this muscle
takes its origin on the endophallic apodeme (fig. 29 C, 284a). The
ejaculatory duct has a strong sheath of circular fibers (fig. 25 E, 285)
extending to the membranous terminal sac.
The function of the endophallic muscles is to regulate the gonopore,
i.e., the aperture of the ejaculatory sac into the spermatophore sac,
and to drive the spermatophores through the gonopore, through the
spermatophore sac of the endophallus, and through the phallotreme
cleft of the aedeagus. If the endophallic cavity is opened from above
by cutting its dorsal wall, and the lateral plates are spread apart (fig.
33 C), the slitlike gonopore (Gpr) is to be seen in the floor of the
spermatophore sac between the posterior ends of the convergent
gonopore processes (y) of the lateral plates. The gonopore processes
are hinged to each other by points of contact just before the anterior
end of the gonopore; as a consequence, an approximation of the
endophallic plates, produced naturally by a contraction of the muscle
between their anterior apodemes (fig. 25 E, F, 283), results in an
opening of the gonopore.
The endophallic mechanism is well illustrated in Mermiria maculi-
pennis (fig. 29 E, F). When the lateral plates are separated, as in the
ordinary state (E), the gonopore (Gpr) is closed to a narrow slit ;
but when the plates are brought together (F) the gonopore becomes
a widely open aperture. Immediately beneath the gonopore is the
membranous ejaculatory sac (fig. 25 G, H, ejs), which is a terminal
enlargement ot the ejaculatory duct. The compressor muscles inserted
on the lateral walls of the ejaculatory sac (C, E, 284) probably
contract in unison with the compressor muscle of the endophallic
plates, and force the spermatophore from the ejaculatory sac through
the open gonopore into the spermatophore sac. The passage of the
spermatophore through the spermatophore sac is not so easily ex-
plained, in the absence of direct observations on the action of the endo-
phallic apparatus, and it seems probable that the endophallic muscles
must produce movements of the endophallic walls other than those con-
cerned with the opening and closing of the gonopore and the com-
pression of the ejaculatory sac described above.
The male genitalia of the Tetrigidae, by comparison with the
acridid organs, are not only very simple in structure, but, as observed
7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
by Walker (1922), they “are surprisingly unlike those of the Acridi-
dae.” The phallus of Tettigidea lateralis (fig. 27D) consists of a
low ovate elevation on the floor of the genital chamber beneath the
pallial valve (C). Sclerites in the lateral walls of the organ converge
and unite anteriorly in a median process armed with small spines.
Between the lateral plates is a large, widely open, membranous cavity,
into the bottom of which the ejaculatory duct opens anteriorly (D,
Gpr). The posterior wall of the cavity is directly continuous with
the inner membranous fold of the pallium (Pal’). The ejaculatory
pe:
f\\
Fic. 27—Abdomen and male genitalia of Tettigidea lateralis (Tetrigidae).
A, terminal part of abdomen. B, dorsal view of pallial valve (PIVIv) and
anterior process of phallic organ. C, lateral view of ninth sternum and pallial
valve, with phallic organ exposed beneath the latter. D, the phallic organ, dorsal
view, with base of inner pallial fold.
duct has strongly muscular walls, and groups of muscle fibers arising
on the phallic sclerites are inserted on its terminal part. Coition is
probably effected by evagination of the endophallic sac. According
to Walker the external phallic plates of the tetrigid organ represent
the epiphallus (‘‘ pseudosternite””) of the Acrididae; but the attach-
ment of the ejaculatory muscles upon them would make it seem more
probable that they are external representatives of the invaginated
endophallic plates of the Acrididae. These plates, Walker himself
contends, are derived from external plates or processes (“ para-
meres’) of other Orthoptera.
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 71
It is thus rather curious to find that, while the external parts of
the male tetrigid abdomen (fig. 27 A) present the typical acridian
characters, the structure of the phallic organs should have so little
in common with these organs in the Acrididae. The male organs of
Tridactylidae, furthermore, are entirely different from those either
of the Tetrigidae or the Acrididae, which fact again is surprising
considering the close resemblance of the female ovipositor in all three
of these families. The lack of uniformity in the male organs, as
compared with the female organs, suggests that the common basic
structure of the phallus is something less fundamental than is that
of the ovipositor.
COPULATION, AND INSEMINATION OF THE FEMALE
Preliminary to copulation the male grasshopper places himself well
forward on the back of the female. With his fore legs he clasps the
pronotum of the female, the claws holding at the notch in the anterior
margin of the prothorax between the pronotum and the small exposed
part of the episternum; the intermediate legs clasp the middle of
the female’s body; the hind legs are held in various positions and
take little part in the copulatory act. The male then lowers his ab-
domen along the side of the female’s abdomen (in pictures almost
invariably on the left side, but Boldyrev says, sometimes on the left,
sometimes on the right). The genital lobe of the ninth segment of
the male is now depressed and the phallic organs protruded, the dorsal
lobe of the aedeagus being turned upward and forward. In order to
expose the spermathecal aperture of the female, which receives the end
of the male organ in copulation, the male, as described by Boldyrev
(1929) for Locusta migratoria, depresses the subgenital plate of the
female with the anterior hooks of the epiphallus. The penis is then
introduced into the genital chamber between and beneath the ventral
valves of the ovipositor and is inserted into the spermathecal canal.
In Locusta migratoria, according to Boldyrev, the separation of the
lower valves of the ovipositor by the organ of the male stretches the
dorsal wall of the genital chamber and pulls back the folds that
ordinarily conceal the spermathecal opening ; the latter is now “ opened
wide and the penis is plunged into it right up to its base.’ The penis,
or dorsal lobe of the aedeagus, in Locusta migratoria is long, slender,
and tapering (fig. 32 B); in forms in which the terminal part is
short and thick, as in Melanoplus (figs. 37, 38, 40), it seems hardly
possible that the entire organ can be inserted ; probably in such cases
only the apical processes enter the spermathecal orifice. During copu-
iation the cerci of the male are said to grasp the base of the subgenital
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
plate of the female, while the distal part of the plate is held down
by the epiphallus.
Paired grasshoppers remain thus together for a number of hours,
or for a day or more, in some cases for more than two days, the
duration of copulation apparently being determined by the length of
time necessary for the formation of the spermatophore, or spermato-
phores, and the transference of the latter to the female, or by the
number of spermatophores produced. Individuals of each sex may
have several successive matings.
It is now well established for the Acrididae that during copulation
the spermatozoa are transferred from the male to the female in true
spermatophores, which, as defined by Cholodkowsky (1910), are
sperm-containing capsules formed in the genital passage of the male.
In some cases only a single spermatophore is produced at each mating,
which, with one end remaining in the genital passage of the male
and the other inserted well into the spermathecal duct of the female,
forms a conduit from one individual to the other through which the
sperm are discharged by the action of the endophallic apparatus of
the male; in other cases a number of small spermatophores are in-
jected into the female. The spermatozoa, as in Tettigoniidae and
Gryllidae, are united by their head ends in bundles, or spermato-
desmata.
The spermatophores of Locusta nugratoria and their formation
have been studied by Iwanowa (1926), Sokolow (1926), and Bol-
dyrev (1929). It appears that normally only one spermatophore is
produced by this species at a single mating. Iwanowa reports finding
sometimes three or four spermatophores in the receptaculum of the
female, but Boldyrev gives evidence that insemination is accomplished
properly with one spermatophore, and that if the male attempts to
insert a second into the spermathecal orifice the process is not natural
and cannot result in the discharge of the spermatozoa.
A spermatophore of Locusta migratoria, as described and figured
by Boldyrev (fig. 32D), is an elongate structure with transparent
walls, consisting of a proximal sac constricted into two bladderlike
compartments, and of a long slender distal tube. The length of the
entire spermatophore is usually 25 to 27 mm, but it may reach 29 or
30 mm. The spermatophore thus greatly exceeds the length of the
intromittent organ (fig. 32 B), since the latter measures not more
than 5 or 6 mm from the gonopore at the bottom of the spermato-
phore sac of the endophallus (sps) to the tips of the apical processes
of the aedeagus. Only the distal tubular part of the spermatophore
is introduced into the spermathecal canal. The extrusion of the tube,
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 73
Boldyrev says, requires an hour or more, and the discharge of the
sperm is not completed until 5$ to 18 hours after copulation begins,
the time apparently being dependent on the temperature. On opening
the genital organs of males killed during copulation, Boldyrev found
that the first bladder of the spermatophore is held in the ejaculatory
sac (fig. 32 B, ejs), while the second lies in the membranous part of
the endophallic cavity here termed the spermatophore sac (sps). The
long spermatophore tube extends through the phallotreme cleft and
protrudes forward from the distal end of the aedeagus between the
bases of the anterior apical processes (C) ; in copulation it is deeply
inserted into the spermathecal duct. During mating the two sexes
are thus united by a tubular conduit through which the sperm are
driven by the action of the endophallic apparatus from the male into
the female. At the end of copulation the spermatophore tube is not
drawn out of the female, but is broken off near its base. The detached
tube is retained a long time in the spermathecal canal; the basal part
of the spermatophore is soon rejected from the male.
With Anacridium aegyptium, as shown by Fedorov (1927), in-
semination of the female is accomplished by the introduction of from
6 to 30 spermatophores into the spermatheca, the usual number being
from 12 to 18. In this species, however, the spermatophores are of
relatively small size, about 1 mm in length. Each capsule is a hyaline
body, broader at the anterior end, which.bears a small appendage easily
broken off. The spermatophores are formed in the beginning of
the ejaculatory duct, but they do not attain their final shape until they
reach the terminal part of the aedeagus. Fedorov believes that the
spermatophores are all prepared during copulation, and that this
accounts for the length of the copulatory period—r14 or 2 hours
being necessary for the completion of one capsule and its transference
to the female. He finds thus that 6 to 12 spermatophores correspond
with 18 to 24 hours of copulation, 18 to 24 with 36 hours, and 30
with 60 hours. In about 4 to 6 hours after the beginning of copula-
tion, Fedorov says, a milky-white jellylike mass containing the empty
spermatophores that have been ejected from the spermatheca collects
between the lower valves of the ovipositor where it becomes brittle
and yellow as it dries, and after a few hours is lost, leaving no evi-
dence of the insemination that has taken place.
EXAMPLES OF THE MALE GENITALIA OF ACRIDIDAE
The following descriptions of the male genitalia of representative
species of the several acridid subfamilies will serve to illustrate the
nature of specific variations in the form of the organs, and will show
the fundamental unity of structure throughout the family.
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Chorthippus bicolor Charp.—The Acridinae (Tryxalinae) have the
typical acridid structure of the male genital organs, except that the
distal part of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus is suppressed, and the
apical processes, which have the form of four long, closely appressed
prongs, arise directly from the proximal part (figs. 28 E, 29 C).
The structure of the male genital organs of Chorthippus bicolor
is shown in figure 28. The aedeagus (E, Aed) includes a dorsal lobe
(dl) and a ventral lobe (vl), but the former consists principally of
the usual proximal part of the dorsal lobe (a), which bears directly
De}
Fic. 28.—Male genitalia of Chorthippus bicolor (Acridinae).
A, end of abdomen. B, dorsal lobe of aedeagus and lateral apodeme, left side.
C, aedeagal apodemes, dorsal view. D, epiphallus, dorsal view. E, phallic or-
gans and floor of genital chamber, lateral view. FF, endophallus and distal
part of aedeagus.
the four large apical processes above noted (B, n, p). The aedeagal
apodemes are well developed as long tapering arms extending forward
from the base of the aedeagus (B, Apa) in deep invaginations be-
neath the basal fold (E) ; their proximal parts are united by a strong
zygoma (C, 2) in the under surface of the basal fold (B). From each
of the apical processes of the aedeagus (F, 1, p) a sclerite extends
proximally in the inner wall of the endophallic meatus (0, q). Here
the extremities of the dorsal pair of sclerites are united by a wide
dorsal bridge (¢), while the tapering ends of the ventral sclerites are
sharply bent upward (s) and then gradually expanded anteriorly to
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 75
form the large lateral plates (w) of the endophalic walls. The ejacu-
latory sac (ejs) opens ventrally into the spermatophore sac of the
endophallus (sps) between the gonopore processes (y) of the lateral
plates, and the spermatophore sac discharges through the wide meatus
and the phallotreme.
The epiphallus is a large sclerite of the usual type of structure
(fig. 28 D) seated on the floor of the genital chamber (E, Epph) at
the anterior end of the surface that forms the fold (bf) overlapping
the base of the aedeagus.
IXSL
ith; SS
284a 284 Ss
Fic. 29.—Male genitalia of Mermiria maculipennis (Acridinae).
A, end of abdomen. B, epiphallus. C, phallic organs with floor of genital
chamber and muscles of endophallic bulb. D, endophallus and distal part of
aedeagus. E, regulator mechanism of the gonopore, ventral view, closed. F,
same, gonopore open.
Mernuria maculipennis Bruner—The only differences in the male
genitalia between this species and the last are in details of form and
relative size of the parts (fig. 29). The epiphallus (B, C, Epph) has
the usual shape ; the basal fold (C, bf) forms a large hoodlike cover-
ing over the base of the aedeagus. The four large apical processes
of the aedeagus, in the retracted condition, project dorsally from the
supporting proximal part (m) of the dorsal lobe; the ventral lobe
(vl) projects like a trough beneath the latter. The endophallus is
large (D), but its lateral plates (w) with their apodemes (zw) and
gonopore processes () are of typical form. The closing and opening
mechanism of the gonopore is easily studied in this species (FE, F).
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Camnula pellucida (Scudder).—There is little in the structure of
the male genitalia to distinguish this oedipodine species (figs. 30, 31)
from the acridine species just described, though there are many
differences to be noted in details of form and relative sizes of the
Fic. 30—End of the male abdomen of Camnula pellucida (Oedipodinae).
A, lateral view. B, dorsal view.
Fic. 31.—Male genitalia of Camnula pellucida (Oedipodinae).
A, the phallic organs situated on floor of genital chamber, and muscles of
endophallic bulb. B, epiphallus, dorsal view, and associated retractor muscles.
C, dorsal lobe of aedeagus and lateral apodeme, left side. D, endophallus and
apical processes of aedeagus.
parts. The epiphallus is large and strongly developed (fig. 31 A,
Epph, B). The basal fold (A, bf) covers the base of the aedeagus
in the usual manner. The dorsal lobe of the aedeagus consists of a
small proximal part (C, m) bearing two strong apodemal arms
(Apa), and of four long curved apical processes (7, P). The ventral
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS HSE
lobe (A, vl) is unusually large and ensheaths much of the dorsal lobe.
The endophallus has the typical form (D, Enph), with well-developed
apodemes (z) and gonopore processes (/).
Locusta migratoria L.—The aedeagus of Locusta migratoria is
quite different in shape from that of the other species here described,
but its peculiarities may be seen as an exaggeration of the structure in
Camnula, The ventral lobe is very large and, in the retracted position
Fic. 32—Male genitalia of Locusta migratoria (Oedipodinae), and acridid
spermatophores.
A, phallic organs on floor of genital chamber, with endophallus and ejaculatory
sac beneath the latter. B, dorsal lobe of aedeagus, with aedeagal apodemes and
endophallus exposed by removal of floor of genital chamber and ventral lobe
of aedeagus. C, aedeagus in protracted position, with protruding spermatophore
(Sphr). D, spermatophore of Locusta migratoria. E, spermatophore of Cal-
liptamus italicus. (C, D, E from Boldyrev, 1929.)
of the phallic organs (fig. 32 A), completely conceals all but the
terminal parts of the dorsal lobe. Its upturned lateral walls contain
each a large quadrate plate (vl) lying in a vertical plane at the side
of the base of the dorsal lobe; ventrally the two plates are united by
a median membranous area of the lobe. When the ventral lobe 1s
removed (B) the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus (d/) is seen to have the
form of a long, tapering tube, curved upward and ending in four
slender apical processes. The organ, however, is not literally tubular,
since the posterior wall is deeply cleft to its base: the opening is the
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
phallotreme, and in its inner walls are the usual phallotreme scleritcs
ending distally in the apical processes (, p). The proximal part
of the dorsal lobe (B, m) is small, but is quite distinct from the
cylindrical distal part (7) and bears the two aedeagal apodemes (Apa).
The phallotreme cleft leads through the meatus in the neck of the
endophallus into the endophallic cavity. The spermatophore sac of the
latter is small (sps), but the ejaculatory sac (ejs) is unusually large ;
the two communicate by the gonopore, which lies between the gono-
pore processes (¥y) of the lateral endophallic plates.
VI IX x Eppt Cer Papt Aa
aaa!
Fic. 33—Male genitalia of Dissosteira carolina (Oedipodinae).
A, end of abdomen with phallic organs concealed in genital chamber. B,
same, with phallic organs protracted. C, endophallic chamber opened from above,
showing gonopore situated in its floor. D, proximal lobes of aedeagus (m)
and aedeagal apodemes with basal zygoma, dorsal view.
i
x)
In the position of protraction (fig. 32 C), as shown by Boldyrev
(1929), the ventral lobe of the aedeagus is depressed and the dorsal
lobe is projected upward with its apical processes turned forward.
The spermatophore (Sphr) issues anteriorly from the upper end of
the phallotreme cleft between the bases of the anterior processes.
Dissosteira carolina (Linn.).—The end of the male abdomen of
Dissosteira is obtusely pointed (fig. 33 A) because of the conical form
of the genital lobe of the ninth sternum (JXSL). The lobe is movable
on the anterior sternal plate (JXS) by a wide membranous area sepa-
rating the two. From its dorsal margin the pallium (Pal) is continued
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 79
forward as a hoodlike fold that meets the lobes of the eleventh seg-
ment, and is then reflected inward to form the posterior wall of the
genital chamber (fig. 26). The genital chamber and the contained
phallic organs are thus ordinarily entirely concealed beneath the tenth
and eleventh segments in front, and the pallial hood behind. If the
pallium is pulled back from the eleventh segment it is to be seen that
the epiphallus occupies an anterior pocket of the genital chamber
beneath the venter of the tenth segment, and that the aedeagus is con-
tained in a posterior pouch lined by the inflected fold of the pallium
(Pal’), which latter extends inward and ventrally to the base of the
ventral lobe of the aedeagus (vl). The floor of the genital chamber
laterally slopes downward from in front (fig. 25 A), where the epi-
phallus is seated upon it, to the base of the inner fold of the pallium,
but medially, between the epiphallus and the aedeagus, it presents a
broad, smooth, rounded surface (D), the posterior margin of which
forms the basal fold (A, D, bf) overlapping the proximal part of the
aedeagus. The epiphallus is a large irregular sclerite, consisting of
two lateral lobes (D, h, h) connected by an arched bridge (7), and
provided with the usual hooked anterior processes (j) and broad,
strong posterior processes (k) having a vertical position. Just laterad
of the epiphallus, in the wall of the genital chamber, are to be seen
the small oval sclerites (g) that give insertion to the large retractor
muscles (261) from the lateral parts of the ninth abdominal tergum.
The structure of the aedeagus is well shown in the protracted con-
dition (fig. 33 B), in which the organ projects dorsally from a basal
sheath formed of the everted pallium (Pal) and the basal fold (bf)
of the genital chamber floor. The two parts of the dorsal lobe of the
aedeagus (7, m) are quite distinct, the narrow distal part (7), ending
in the small apical processes (n, p), being exserted from between the
lobate lateral walls of the proximal part (m). The ventral aedeagal
lobe (vl) embraces the dorsal lobe posteriorly, and between the two
is a deep cavity into which opens the vertical slitlike phallotreme in
the posterior wall of the dorsal lobe. The aedeagal apodemes (D,
Apa) project downward and forward from the base of the dorsal
lobe beneath the basal fold (B, bf), and their proximal parts are united
by a wide zygoma (D, z) in the under side of the fold (B, 2).
The phallotreme is a deep cleft in the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus ;
in its lateral walls are the usual two pairs of sclerites (fig. 25 H, 0, @).
The sclerites of the dorsal (anterior) pair end in the meatus, where
they are united with each other by a transverse bridge (tf) in the dorsal
wall of the latter ; the ventral (posterior) sclerites are continuous by
narrow upcurved arms (s) with the lateral plates (w) of the en-
6
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
dophallic bulb. The posterior angle of each endophallic plate is armed
internally by a free spinelike process (G), below which the margin
of the plate extends obliquely downward and forward to the base of
the gonopore process (7). Between the gonopore processes, as already
shown, lies the gonopore, or true genital aperture (fig. 33 C, Gpr),
by which the ejaculatory sac (fig. 25 G, H, e7s) communicates with
the spermatophore sac (sps) of the endophallus.
Romalea microptera (Beauvois).—The distal lobe of the ninth ster-
num in this species shuts close against the epiproct and paraprocts,
so that the pallium is not exposed and the end of the abdomen has a
Fic. 34.—Male genitalia of Romalea microptera (Cyrtacanthacrinae).
A, end of abdomen. B, epiphallus, dorsal view. C, epiphallus and aedeagus on
floor of genital chamber, lateral view. D, aedeagus and endophallus, lateral
view. E, same, dorsal view.
truncate form (fig. 34 A). The epiphallus is deeply sunken in the
anterior end of the genital chamber, and the basal fold rises steeply
against the anterior surface of the aedeagus (C), concealing most of
the basal parts of the latter. The dorsal lobe of the aedeagus has a
well-developed cylindrical distal part (D, 7) from which project two
pairs of apical processes (1, p). The proximal part (m) bears a pair
of short but very wide lateral apodemes (D, E, Apa). The endophal-
lus is relatively small, but the anterior apodemes (zw) of its lateral
plates are large and widely divergent (E).
Schistocerca americana (Drury ).—The elongate subgenital plate of
the ninth abdominal sternum of this species has a broad, deeply emargi-
No. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS SI
nate extension projecting far beyond the origin of the pallium from its
dorsal lamella (fig. 35 A, B, IXSL). The exposed part of the pallium
(Pal) forms a thick, transversely corrugated fold against the para-
procts. When the tenth and eleventh segments are removed (B) the
genital chamber is exposed from above, and there are to be seen on
its floor the phallic structures lying anterior to the aedeagus, the latter
being still concealed beneath the pallial hood. The epiphallus consists
of large lateral lobes (i, 1) connected by a narrow median bridge ;
anterior processes are absent, but the posterior processes are present
Fic. 35.—Male genitalia of Schistocerca americana (Cyrtacanthacrinae).
A, end of abdomen. B, dorsal view of genital lobe of ninth sternum, pallium,
and anterior part of genital chamber, exposed by removal of tenth and eleventh
segments. C, phallic organs, posterior view. D, same, lateral view. E, aedeagus
with apodeme, endophallus, and ejaculatory sac. F, endophallus and apex of
aedeagus.
in the form of large triangular plates (k, k). Between the bases of
the latter the floor of the genital chamber presents a deep transverse
groove, the part behind the groove terminating in the basal fold (bf).
The aedeagus is small (C, D, Aed), but its ventral lobe (v/) is rela-
tively large. The principal part of the dorsal lobe is formed of the
usual proximal subdivision (D, E, m), the distal part (E, 7) being
much reduced and ending in a small spoutlike terminal lobe without
apical processes. The aedeagal apodemes (FE, Apa) are short but
broad at their bases. The endophallus (F) has the usual structure,
but has characteristic features. The phallotreme sclerites (0, q) are
82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
very slender; those of the dorsal pair are united by an arched bridge
(¢) in the dorsal wall of the meatus; each sclerite of the ventral pair
bears a large, thin, oval plate (v) in the lateral wall of the phallotreme
cleft. The ejaculatory sac (ejs) is relatively large and is separated
from the spermatophore sac (sps) by strong gonopore processes
(y) of the lateral endophalic plates.
Melanoplus ditferentialis (Thomas).—The ninth sternal lobe is
short in this species (fig. 36, 7X SL), and from its dorsal margin the
exposed part of the pallium (B, Pal) rises like a dome behind the
eleventh segment. The phallic organs (fig. 37 A) are somewhat
crowded in the rather small genital chamber. The epiphallus (Epph)
is large but weakly sclerotized, and is deeply sunken into the folded
Fic. 36.—Male abdomen of Melanoflus differentialis (Cyrtacanthacrinae).
A, entire abdomen. B, end of abdomen, lateral view. C, same, dorsal view.
floor of the genital chamber. The basal fold (bf) is bilobed. The
dorsal lobe of the aedeagus is distinctly divided into a proximal part
(A, B, m) bearing the aedeagal apodemes (B, Apa), and a large cylin-
drical distal part (7). The ventral lobe (A, vl) is relatively small.
From the distal end of the aedeagus there projects only one pair of
apical processes (A, B, C, D, 7), which are the usual anterior dorsal
processes continuous from the dorsal sclerites of the phallotreme cleft
(D, 0). The ventral processes are present, but they are concealed
within the phallotreme cleft (C, ~), since they arise deeply from the
walls of the latter and do not project from the apex of the aedeagus.
The endophallus (D) has the usual structure, though the sperma-
tophore sac (sps) is much reduced, and the ejaculatory sac (ejs) is
turned upward against its posterior wall.
Fic. 37.—Male genitalia of Melanoplus differentialis (Cyrtacanthacrinae).
A, the external phallic organs on floor of genital chamber. B, aedeagus and
endophallus. C, dorsal lobe of aedeagus, posterior view, showing phallotreme
(Phir) and apical processes (1, p). D, endophallus with apex of aedeagus,
and ejaculatory duct.
Fic. 38.—Male abdomen and genitalia of Melanoplus mexicanus (Cyrta-
canthacrinae ).
A, end of abdomen, lateral view. B, same, dorsal view. C, right half of
epiphallus. D, external and internal phallic organs, with floor of genital chamber.
E, aedeagus and apodeme, right side.
83
84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Melanoplus mexicanus (Sauss.).—The general features of this
species are sufficiently shown in figure 38. The distal part of the
dorsal lobe of the aedeagus is unusually long (D, E, r) and is pro-
duced into two terminal lobes laterad of the phallotreme cleft. The
dorsal apical processes (1) thus come to project anteriorly below the
summit of the terminal lobes. With the base of each of these processes
there is connected a soft padlike lobe (EF, /). The ventral apical proc-
esses are concealed within the phallotreme cleft as in the last species.
Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Degeer).—The exposed characters of
the male abdomen of this species are shown in figure 39. The phallic
organs are entirely concealed in the usual manner within the genital
chamber (fig. 40B). The epiphallus (A, B, Epph) is very large,
especially as to its lateral lobes. Behind the epiphallus the genital
IX X fF Bppe
Ce
Fic. 39—End of the male abdomen of Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Cyrta-
canthacrinae ).
A, lateral view. B, dorsal view.
chamber floor is elevated in a large cushionlike structure, the anterior
part of which rests against the posterior epiphallic lobes, while the
deeply cleft posterior part forms a thick bilobed basal fold (bf) cover-
ing the basal part of the aedeagus. The aedeagus (B, Aed) consists
of an irregular dorsal lobe, and of a simple relatively small ventral
lobe (vl). The dorsal lobe shows the usual subdivision into a proximal
part (m) and a distal part (7), the latter bearing a single pair of
large apical processes (7), which, as in other species of Melanoflus,
are the usual anterior dorsal processes. Connected with the base of
each of these processes is a soft, flat accessory lobe (C, J) lying on
the dorsal surface of the base of the aedeagus. The ventral processes,
as appears to be characteristic of Melanoplus, arise deeply within
the phallotreme cleft (fig. 41 B, p) and only their tips appear ex-
ternally before the bases of the dorsal processes (A, p). The phallo-
NO. 6 GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 85
Fic. 40. Male genitalia of Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Cyrtacanthacrinae).
A, the external phallic organs, dorsal view. B, same, lateral view, with part
of genital chamber wall. C, aedeagus and apodeme, left side. D, aedeagus with
apodemes, and endophallus, dorsal view.
Fic. 41.—Male genitalia of Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Cyrtacanthacrinae ).
A, endophallus and apical part of aedeagus. B, diagrammatic median section
of distal part of aedeagus, exposing right inner wall of phallotreme cleft and
meatus of endophallus, showing accessory lobe (/) of dorsal apical process (7),
and internal origin of ventral apical process (/).
86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
treme sclerites (B, 0, q) extend forward in the walls of the phallo-
treme cleft from the bases of their respective processes (n, p).
Anterior to the phallotreme a tubular meatus (A) leads into the cavity
of the endophallus, and the ejaculatory sac (ejs) opens between large
gonopore processes (1) into the small spermatophore sac (sps). The
phallotreme cleft in the proximal part of the dorsal lobe of the aedeagus
has its lateral walls strengthened by a pair of thin oval plates (fig.
AT AG sch)
The foregoing studies of three species of Melanoplus suggest that
the phallic structures will be found to be more variable and more spe-
cialized among the Melanopli than in the other acridid groups.
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON THE FIGURES
aAp, anterior sternal apodeme.
Aed, aedeagus.
AcGIl, accessory genital gland.
acs, antecostal suture.
aiv, anterior intervalvula.
AN, alinotum.
An, anus.
Ap, apodeme.
Apa, apodeme of aedeagus.
ast, acrosternite (precostal lip of
sternum).
atg, acrotergite (precostal lip of
tergum).
bf, basal phallic fold.
Bs, basisternum.
Cer, cercus.
Cln, colon.
CpCls, cap cells of sense organ.
CaC, coxal cavity.
Cxpd, coxopodite (limb basis).
Dej, ductus ejaculatorius.
dil, lateral internal dorsal muscles.
dim, median internal dorsal muscles.
dl, dorsal lobe of aedeagus.
DMcl, longitudinal dorsal muscles.
DS, dorsal sinus.
DV, dorsal blood vessel.
eg, egg guide.
ejs, ejaculatory sac.
Enph, endophallus.
Epm, epimeron.
Epph, epiphallus.
Eppt, epiproct.
Eps, episternum.
GC, genital chamber.
Gpr, gonopore.
Tl, ileum.
IXSL, genital lobe of ninth abdominal
sternum.
lAp, lateral sternal apodeme.
le, external lateral muscles.
li, internal lateral muscles.
lst, lalterosternite.
ltg, laterotergite.
Nv, nerve.
Odc, oviductus communis.
Odl, oviductus lateralis.
Ovp, ovipositor.
Pa, postalar arm of postnotum.
Pal, pallium.
Pal’, inner fold of pallium.
Papt, paraproct.
paptl, lobe of paraproct.
Ph, phragma.
Phil, phallus.
Phtr, phallotreme.
piv, posterior intervalvula.
PI, pleuron.
PIS, pleural suture.
PIV lv, pallial valve.
PN, postnotum.
NO. 6
Prex, precoxal pleural sclerite.
PvS, perivisceral sinus.
Py, pylorus.
Rect, rectum.
S, definitive sternum.
sa, external pit of sternal apophysis.
SCls, sense cells.
Sco, scolops (sense rod).
ST, sternellum.
SO, sense organ.
Sp, spiracle.
Sphr, spermatophore.
spn, external pit of sternal spina.
Spr, spermathecal aperture.
sps, spermatophore sac of endophallus.
Spt, spermatheca.
SptD, spermathecal duct.
GRASSHOPPER ABDOMEN—SNODGRASS 87
sr, sternal ridge.
Stn, primitive sternum.
T, tergum.
td, dorsal transverse muscles.
Tm, tympanum.
tr, tergal ridge.
tv, ventral transverse muscles.
Vent, ventriculus.
vil, lateral internal ventral muscles.
vim, median internal ventral muscles.
V1, valvula.
vl, ventral lobe of aedeagus.
Vif, valvifer.
VNC, ventral nerve cord.
VS, ventral sinus.
WP, pleural wing process.
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1927. Studies in the copulation and oviposition of Anacridium aegyptium
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Forp, Norma
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IQOI.
Funzionamento dell’armatura genitale femminile e considerazioni in-
torno alle ooteche degli Acridii. Giorn. Sci. Nat. Econ. Palermo,
vol. 23, pp. 54-61, 8 figs.
88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
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(L.). Bull. Biol. France et Belgique, vol. 56, pp. 545-578.
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=
7
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 7
A NEW AND IMPORTANT
COPEPOD HABLA
BY
CHARLES BRANCH WILSON
State Teachers College, Westfield, Mass.
(PUBLICATION 3336)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
SEPTEMBER 20, 1935
TEE ener (oe
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
~NEW AND IMPORTANT COPEPOD HABITAT
By CHARLES BRANCH WILSON
State Teachers College, Westfield, Mass.
In addition to forming an integral portion of the plankton of both
fresh and salt water, copepods have also been found in several unique
situations. Some species inhabit damp moss in the Black Forest of
Germany and other European woodlands long distances from any
body of water. Other species live within the branchial chambers of
land crabs, which enter the ocean only during their spawning season,
once a year. Copepods have also been found in the rain water which
accumulates inside the cup formed by the tightly sheathed leaves of
certain epiphytic Bromeliads saddled on the limbs of tropical trees
far away from the water. But these are simply distribution freaks,
likely to occur in any animal or plant group, and confined to so few
species as to be worthy only of passing notice.
There has recently been discovered, however, a new copepod habitat
of vastly more importance and claiming as its tenants a sufficient num-
ber of genera and species to constitute an important group. According
to their habits and mode of life, copepods have hitherto been divided
into three well-known groups: free-swimmers, commensals, and para-
sites. The dwellers in this new environment will constitute a fourth
group, which may be designated as terraqueous copepods because they
actually live in both water and sand or mud. Brief mention has already
been made’ of this group, and the name benthenic was suggested for
them. But that term has already come into general use to designate
the fauna and flora of the sea bottom as opposed to the plankton.
Certain of the free-swimming copepods live close to the bottom and
move about in the water or among the vegetation above the bottom.
They are the forms which should be designated as benthonic, whereas
these terraqueous copepods actually penetrate the sand or mud, and
hence can never be captured by towing. They are not free-swimmers,
therefore, and are neither commensal nor parasitic in their habits,
but must form a new group.
The discovery of these sand and mud dwellers was first made by
the late Dr. N. A. Cobb, government specialist on nematodes. While
*U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 158, p. 6, 1932.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 7
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
washing out some of his nematodes from the sand of the bathing
beach at Woods Hole, he found copepods among them. Further ex-
amination revealed that the sand of that beach and other beaches along
Cape Cod and on the neighboring islands was fairly teeming with
copepods. Many more could be washed out of the sand than could
be obtained by towing along the shore.
During the following summer the same was found to be true of the
sand beaches around Mount Desert Island on the Maine coast. And
since every sand beach yielded its quota of copepods, the search was
extended to the mud flats, the mussel beds, and the tide pools—in
fact, to all kinds of localities where the beach was not composed of
solid rock. Let it be remembered that the exceptional tides (12 to 16
feet) of the region lay bare immense areas of shore at low water.
Every locality examined yielded at least one or more copepod species,
usually more, and a few localities as many as 20 or 25. In the mussel
beds they were found in the sand or mud beneath the upper layer of
living mussels; in areas covered with seaweed they were in the soil
beneath the plants; in the tide pools they were washed out of the
sand or mud covering the bottom of the pool.
These copepods not only live in the sand and mud while it is covered
by the tide, but remain there after the tide has ebbed and left the
beach uncovered. As some of them are found as far up on the beach
as the average high water mark, the time during which their habitat
is covered by the ocean water is very much shorter than the interval
during which it is left uncovered. And yet such conditions do not
seem to be at all disadvantageous, to say nothing of being inimical.
Sand that had remained uncovered at least 10 hours and had become
rather warm in the hot sunlight, yielded living and active copepods
when washed out in the laboratory.
Nor are the copepods confined to the beach between tide marks,
but are found everywhere in the sand and mud constantly beneath the
water down to moderate depths. Portions of the sea bottom brought
up on the flukes of anchors or in a dredge usually yield some copepods
on being washed out and strained. Many such species have been
obtained in dredging and have been described and figured by various
authors without the knowledge that they were really sand dwellers.
It is of course impossible to tell whether a dredged specimen comes
from above or beneath the surface of the ocean bottom. The descrip-
tions and figures, however, show just such modifications in size, shape,
and structure as appear in these sand dwellers.
Upon reflection it will appear that two conditions are requisite in
order to induce the copepods to penetrate the sand or mud and remain
NOD 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—-WILSON %
there for any length of time. There must be plenty of food and the en-
vironment must be such as to allow the copepods more or less freedom
of locomotion. The former is readily explained by the presence in the
sand or mud of such organisms, especially diatoms, as ordinarily serve
for copepod food. This would constitute a sort of cold storage supply
amongst which the copepods could browse with much less danger from
outside interference. But can the copepods move about in the sand or
mud with anything like freedom of locomotion? Consider the sand
first. ;
What is commonly designated as sand may be derived from several
sources, and its constituent grains may vary greatly in size, with con-
siderable resultant differences in the sand itself. If derived from the
geologic weathering and erosion of crystalline rocks, the sand is made
up very largely of rounded grains of quartz. Such is the sand of
Cape Cod and the Maine coast, and it cannot be compressed sufficiently
to obliterate or even greatly diminish the interstices between the grains.
These open spaces make an ideal forage ground for copepods small
enough to move about within them, and there is little danger of being
crushed. Such sand always contains copepods even on exposed beaches
like those of the south shore of Marthas Vineyard, where a heavy
surf breaks almost continuously. Such sand also frequently collects
in the tide pools along the Maine coast and often contains a good
assortment of copepods. One pool at Sea Wall on Mount Desert
Island, about the size of a small room, yielded more than 20 copepod
species, including calanids, harpactids, and cyclopids.
If the sand is largely made up of broken shells, as it often is in
the Tropics, its grains are not spherical but more or less flattened, and
when the flattened surfaces come together, which is the usual tendency,
the interstices are entirely obliterated. Any minute organism that
tried to live in such sand would be in constant danger of being crushed.
This kind of a sand beach never contains copepods, and the bathing
beach on the eastern shore of Mount Desert Island just south of Bar
Harbor is an excellent example. Two-thirds of the sand of that beach
is broken shells, and it is the only sand beach examined on the island
that yielded no copepods.
A third source of sand is coral disintegration, and this is the preva-
lent kind of sand beach everywhere in the Tropics. The coral rock
is so soft that the resultant grains tend to become extremely small and
to vary considerably in size. Here again the interstices between the
grains can be practically obliterated by pressure, and if any are left
they become so small and irregular as to be uninhabitable. Only rarely
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
and in exceptional localities would any copepods be found in this sort
of sand.
In view of these considerations the final answer to the question
whether copepods can move about freely in sand is in the affirmative if
it is quartz sand, and in the negative if it is shell or coral sand. The fact
also that both the shell and the coral sand are calcareous may have
some influence upon the copepods.
As to the mud, its composition is also the most important factor
in determining whether it is to be inhabited or not. If it is dense clay
there will be no chance of finding copepods within it, and on the
other hand if it be sandy the probability of its being inhabited by
copepods will become greater as the percentage of sand it contains
increases. The upper layers of ordinary mud are more or less floccu-
lent, that is they are made up of small flattened flakes or floccules.
These are to a certain extent buoyant in water and are so irregular
in form that they do not pack together closely but leave sufficient open
spaces for the copepods to move about freely. Many of the floccules
are also so small and light that they can be easily pushed aside by the
copepods during their progress, and so soft that contact with them is
not likely to be at all harmful. Consequently, in the mud there is not
the same restriction in size that prevails in the sand, and the larger
copepods can move about as freely as the smaller ones, possibly with
even greater facility.
Such a life as this, moving about all the time within the confines
of the sand and mud, is just as different from that of the typical free-
swimming forms that frequent the open water as are the lives of the
commensal and parasitic copepods. The investigations carried on in
these last two groups have already revealed numerous modifications
resulting from their habits and mode of life. It is reasonable to sup-
pose that these terraqueous copepods would also exhibit modifications
similar in their interpretation but differing in their details, and such we
find to be the case.
The first of these modifications is shown in the restricted size of
the fully developed adult. In the other groups we find great variations
in size up to 200 mm in a few parasitic forms. Here there is great
uniformity in size, from a minimum of a quarter of a millimeter to
a maximum of half a millimeter in the sand dwellers, and a maximum
of slightly more than a millimeter in the mud dwellers.
A second modification is one of shape; it is evident that a linear
form will have greater freedom of motion under the restrictions of
the sand and mud than a rotund or corpulent form. The terraqueous
copepods all exhibit a more or less pronounced slenderness, the length
NO. 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—WILSON 5
being many times the width of the body. The accompanying figures of
four different genera of sand-dwelling copepods show their typical
linear form, which is admirably suited to their mode of life (figs. 1
and 2).
Fic. 1—a, dorsal view of a female Nitocra chelifer, a sand
dweller; b, dorsal view of a male Arenosetella spinicauda, a sand
dweller.
A third modification results in increased flexibility ; mere slender-
ness of body would contribute but little to freedom of motion unless
accompanied by flexibility. In the jointed body of the ordinary cope-
pod only one of the articulations is really movable, all the others being
more or less rigid and incapable of motion. In these copepods there
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
is much freedom of motion in every one of the articulations, and the
body can be flexed considerably upward or downward, to the right
or to the left, as may be necessary. This increased flexibility enables
the copepod to realize fully all the advantages of its modified size
and shape. If one of these copepods is put in an aquarium with sand
FG. 2.—a, dorsal view of a female Paraleptastacus brevicauda-
tus, a sand dweller; b, dorsal view of a male Emertonia gracilis,
a sand dweller.
at the bottom, it quickly buries itself in the sand, and during the process
gives abundant evidence of its great flexibility.
Another useful modification is an increase in tactile equipment and
sensibility. These terraqueous copepods are compelled to move about
more or less in the dark, where their eyesight can be of little use for
guidance. At the same time the space within which they move is so
NOS 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—WILSON i
restricted that the demand for some sort of guidance is greatly en-
hanced and becomes imperative. This demand is met by a greatly in-
creased tactile sensibility in the first antennae, which here become
“ feelers ” in the fullest sense of the term. The normal copepod usu-
Fic. 3.—a, first antenna of a male Arenosetella spinicauda, with
two large aesthetasks; 0, first antenna of a male Nitocra chelifer,
with a single long and stout aesthetask; c, first antenna of a male
Emertonia gracilis, with a single enlarged aesthetask.
Fic. 4.—First antenna of Arenocalanus tumidus, female, a new
genus of sand-dwelling calanids, showing an exceptional increase
in the number of aesthetasks.
ally carries a single sensory club or aesthetask on each of the first
antennae. In these terraqueous copepods the size and length of the
aesthetasks may be considerably increased, as happens more often
in the males (fig. 3). In the females either the number of aesthetasks
is multiplied as in figure 4, or they are supplemented by thick finger-
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
like processes, carrying along one or both sides a row of coarse spines
as in figure 5. There are sometimes six or eight such processes on each
antenna, projecting in all directions and giving the appendage a de-
cidely bizarre appearance. Nothing of this sort has ever been reported
upon free-swimming copepods, and hence it may be regarded as a .
special modification for a special mode of life. Furthermore, the first
antennae are short and curve around the front of the head in such a
way as to offer least resistance to forward progress. At the same time
Fic. 5.—c, first antenna of a female Rathbunula curticauda, a
sand dweller; d, first antenna of a female Echinocornus pectinatus,
a sand dweller.
the frontal margin is thereby furnished with a highly sensitive arma-
ture admirably suited for guidance.
Of course these copepods cannot indulge in free-swimming, since
there is no room for it within the sand and mud, and the copepods
come out into the open water very seldom, if at all. We therefore
find, as would be expected considerable modification of the swimming
legs in some of the species. The long plumose setae, so useful in
swimming, partially or wholly disappear and are replaced by stout
spines. In figure 6 all the first four pairs of legs are modified in this
way, and it is quite evident that they are thus made more serviceable
NO. 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—WILSON 9
for crawling about in sand and mud. There is also sometimes a re-
duction in the number and size of the endopod segments until in a
few species the entire endopod is reduced to a mere knob, of no use
except to show that the leg is still biramose.
Another modification is concerned with the external ovisacs, which
in the free-swimming copepods hang loosely from the genital segment
and often diverge considerably from the body. The eggs themselves
are of moderate size and fairly numerous, and may be carried in one
or two ovisacs, or even extruded singly into the water without being
carried at all. In the parasitic copepods a large number of eggs seems
to be the primal requisite. When the eggs are arranged in a single
mT
eH
Fic. 6.—f_ to 1, first, second, third and fourth leg of Emertonia
gracilis, showing substitution of spines fer plumose setae.
row, as in the Caligidae, the increase in number is obtained by length-
ening the ovisacs, which sometimes become several times as long as
the entire body. When the eggs are multiseriate, the diameter of the
ovisac is increased and the size of the egg is at the same time dimin-
ished. As a result, the number of eggs in some copepods parasitic upon
deep-sea fish may reach 10,000 or more in each ovisac. In the com-
mensal copepods there are often no ovisacs, the eggs being gathered
into a brood sack situated in the dorsal portion of the thorax.
In contrast with these three groups, the ovisacs of the terraqueous
copepods are nearly always flattened and closely appressed to the
surface of the genital segment and abdomen. Sometimes the fifth
legs are enlarged and modified to cover the anterior ends of the ovisacs
and thus partially protect them. The number of eggs is reduced, and
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 9Q4
at the same time the size is increased, so that each ovisac contains
very few eggs, in some instances only two as shown in figure 7, an
harpactid, or a few more as in figure 8, a cyclopid.
In addition to the modifications in structure exhibited by these sand
and mud dwellers, there are also such differences in habits and mode
of life as would be expected from their habitat. Free-swimming cope-
pods maintain nearly perpetual motion ; as they are heavier than water,
Fic. 7.—Dorsal view of female Goffinella stylifer, a sand dweller,
showing the peculiar ovisacs and large eggs.
this is necessary to keep them suspended and prevent their sinking
to the bottom. When they wish to rest, some species are able to
suspend themselves from the surface film of the water, but all the
others must find some support. For those that live near the bottom,
the vegetation and the debris that collects on the bottom afford the
requisite support, but it is quite different with those that live in the
open ocean. For them, unless there happens to be something floating
to which they can cling, it becomes the simple problem of sink or swim.
NO. 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—WILSON von
A great deal of motion and very little rest therefore constitutes the
essential mode of life of a free-swimmer.
The great majority of the parasitic copepods, when once they are
securely fastened to their hosts, do not move at all but may be, and
usually are, carried long distances by their hosts. In early life all
these parasitic forms are free-swimmers during their nauplius, met-
anauplius, and often their copepodid stages. And of course during
those periods they must maintain a great deal of motion and enjoy but
Fic. 8—Dorsal view of female Cyclopina agilis, a dweller in sandy
mud, with large eggs closely appressed to the body.
little rest. But in adult life this is exactly reversed even for such species
as continue to practice more or less the free-swimming of early life.
They may leave their hosts and move about freely in the water, but this
is not continued for any length of time, and they quickly return to
their hosts.
The commensal copepods spend their entire lives inside the body of
their hosts, and hence they never swim freely except in so far as it
is possible within such narrow confines. A great deal of rest and
very little motion, therefore, are the characteristics of their mode of
life.
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
These terraqueous copepods form a new group intermediate between
the others and differing from them in many ways. There is no neces-
sity for swimming in order to prevent them from sinking, and wher-
ever they may stop when moving about will provide a convenient
resting place. Their chief concern is to obtain an adequate food supply,
and in doing this they scurry about freely in the sand or mud. They
have much more freedom of motion than the commensal forms but
not nearly as much as the free-swimmers; they may well be called
free-movers but scarcely free-swimmers. In all probability their time
is much more evenly divided between motion and rest than it is in
the other groups.
Again, the free-swimmers, in consequence of their protracted move-
ments, cover a considerable area and may even be carried long dis-
tances by currents or drifts. In this way they are widely distributed,
and it is not uncommon to find some of the species in nearly every
ocean on the globe. The same thing is true of the parasitic copepods,
for here the females, and often both sexes, are carried about by the
hosts, and if the latter are fish or other animals capable of extended
migration, the parasites are thereby widely scattered.
On the contrary, most commensal copepods live within ascidians,
holothurians, tunicates, and similar animals, which move about but
little if at all. And since the movements of the copepod adults are
also restricted, the species have only a limited distribution. Their
chance for dissemination lies in the escape of the larvae from their
host and the ability to swim about during their development stages.
Similarly, in these terraqueous copepods the distance covered by the
locomotion of the adults is so limited that the distribution of the
species is seriously handicapped. The presence of a given species in
the sand or mud of one beach is no indication that it will be found in
neighboring beaches. We may go farther and say that the component
parts of the same beach are very likely to yield different species of
copepods. In short, isolation is as much an accompaniment of dwelling
in the sand or mud as is wide distribution a result of swimming freely
in the open ocean.
A final consideration is concerned with reproduction and is also
intimately associated with distribution. Among the free-swimmers the
female carries her eggs about with her in external ovisacs or extrudes
them singly at intervals into the water. In the former case the eggs
are kept together until they hatch, in the latter case they are widely
scattered, since the female is constantly moving about while extruding
them. Similarly, when the eggs in the ovisac hatch, the nauplii do not
all emerge at the same time, but there is a considerable interval between
NO. 7 A NEW COPEPOD HABITAT—WILSON 13
the bursting of the first and the last egg shell. Here also the female
copepod is moving about constantly while the nauplii are emerging,
so that the latter are just as widely separated as when the eggs were
deposited singly. Such a scattering of the larvae must contribute
greatly to a wide distribution of the species, but we are chiefly con-
cerned here with the separation of parent and offspring. It is quite
evident that among these free-swimmers no inference of relation-
ship can be drawn from a mere association of adults and larvae.
In the commensal copepods, on the contrary, every step in the
process of reproduction from the preliminary mating to the final
moult into the adult form takes place within the body of the host.
If there were a single male and female at the outset it would be fairly
certain that all the larvae were their offspring, and we would have a
genuine copepod family from a genetical point of view. Relationship
can be argued here from association of adults and larvae and might
possibly continue through more than one generation.
The terraqueous copepods appear to occupy an intermediate posi-
tion between the two extremes just noted. Compared with the free-
swimmers they move about very little, compared with the commensals
they have greater freedom of locomotion. It is highly probable, how-
ever, that the area covered by a female during the hatching of her
eggs is very limited. As a result the emerging nauplii are not far
removed from their parent and may be more or less closely associated
with one another. The relationship of adults and larvae found together
is not at all impossible, but neither is it as probable as among the
commensal copepods.
The considerations here discussed show very clearly that these
terraqueous copepods constitute a fourth group fully as well defined
as either of the three already accepted. And they open up to the
investigator an entirely new field of research along several interesting
lines. Not only will a comparatively large number of the specimens
obtained in the sand and mud prove to be new species and genera,
but also they will exhibit some remarkable adaptations to their en-
vironment. The habitat is entirely new and one of the last to be
suspected as a resort for copepods, and the mode of life is unique and
entirely unlike that of other copepods. Such a combination ought
to prove genuinely attractive and, supplemented by the abundant sup-
ply of working material, ought to yield important results.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 94; NO. 8; RE. 1
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AS
SECTION OF THE SMITH Map, 1624
The two crosses indicate the farthest points reached by the colonists when
they ascended the Rappahannock in August 1608. The large island is just
below Mahaskahod. An aerial photograph of the island as it now appears is
reproduced in plate 2.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 8
THe WAN AOAC PRIBES IN
Vik GiNiAs foos
(WITH 21 PLATES)
BY
DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
(PUBLICATION 3337)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 9, 1935
The Lord Wattimore Prees
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
CONTENTS
PAGE
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Arrival of the English at the falls of the Rappahannock, August 1608. . 2
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IMiahiaskahodiespenra waneeriret ae eae ere ace oe hae See ee 8
NeL'ey SSULLU rely MPA Cavey tea hacer oe at voce esa vac eisseiev densi rote ate sone vemneioen Gacke ences 8
TieipeaheNe) cs ucowemoedn cde adad Ss SoM OOo aceon an omm an enous onnoe 9
Sine eevearahiel. Sen anes ao Or GD e Or ee amen ae re err eran manor olsiaa ey 9
SEC UTA Meats oe TG a eich ec seen Nere a Slob mce gu coe crcuans eee ialls. easier roveenete euseretaes 9
Dispersing of the native tribes from the Rapidan-Rappahannock area...... 10
EvidencemOilelndianmoccupancy emer teen cerita ctie niet kneiciae 15
sihetisland! and vicinity aes ras se tase cnes oss 8 eee Ao eeees pee erereeiels 160
Wai Cinity «Of oMiottsia Rete terersrra teres teres eee erarreyaie pais 3 crnerote ks ore 20
IBIORES ts Ekalll FSitielse cessichey ete eeratererebeera ore orale aiers aus aile-eor er eusheyei els enerevecetaeniale 22
Right bank of the Rappahannock from the mouth of the Rapidan to
RCH and Se EOL yy erect ware ee rs dm cre ey ecevhe ee eutatae co ep sctoterenaperceete 24
parry Workshop gcc ice sae racia ciate arene etre sass i x15) slaalong Sehetecietey ee 27,
BRODER SpE ORG seu teternce sierseeneees ese syauste at omer eP gts crasltcis ene yerer aa Noted ger eT aNG 28
SitematlNe lily cM OG ween c.ctacucne tice tensa ere ral syed ber apee taetohaye chaltcneueyies 31
ictetay.Se Lulats erie rier eters ees aotake ct = Momraotyetetn Ohcayeis lars/onsvatetorasicueder 33
Ey SE OT Lee seeps tee vee ee wevevs oe DSP ee ao eal otars ovcdev icy aiovinns besitos case eeMeR cee 35
SitewabeskinkersmMOndiya.cc Arya tae ct sree Gis ntie Cusine a oe ceneimrnci 36
Boxy Neckerandevicinityinudar sae oc reese. cee Chee s seine alee seiesoi a & 40
Mhemivapidantealb ove mbox Necker eretelerscierstie ol erie iciel eer ckere heroism 2
Comparative study of material from the Rapidan-Rappahannock area...... 44
INS CS ee es eet ts EL os Te ef TR CEES CIEE REE ric eC ae 45
Projectile) points) and othen small faked) objects... .. 4.4. -- 2-4." 40
POET CG VEN eee evar RUS OR ease MEGNAUEeE Sra a yen eves eyoie ohare. layers sede sees 49
COC Se re ee ete ds, seman ay oer spe mi cpamei ete 54
(GONG 1S 1 OTN eT A Pee sean emai Ronis ols crenata ere. Ns 55
OIAKA WD H
L ol
ROS MONAV EHD A
—
[EEUSTRATIONS
PLATES
Section of the Smith map, 1624 (Frontispiece )
Looking up the Rappahannock over the island and falls.......... setsiose
Specimens fromypopposite the 1slande. mc. as. sc os eeilsleceieeeiieie ie oe
Specimens tron the vicinity, of NMiotts) Ritnsn..scucese saeeeeeaeeec ers
Looking down the Rappahannock from over the mouth of the Rapidan. .
Specimensminomiethestionresteblalliisitessnm sense areerieereiieemeicie orice
Fragments of pottery and objects of stone from the Forest Hall site...
Looking up the valley of the Rappahannock, showing the mouth of the
Rapidanmwathechanrdsstordyhey ond emmremarcececetenacececeees
1. Richards Ford on the Rappahannock. 2. Fragments of pottery from
Mea tegtMe sO Ube terera stele ens thee terete. evecetn sich aces cpersverele Sie rar alex on creaenmeters
Hracments otepottenya thom ROgeES HOndeee asses
Looking up the valley of the Rappahannock from Kellys Ford........
1. Down the Rappahannock from Kellys Ford. 2. Pottery from the
SitevatWielllivs Orcieee mre eis ore cucvsscvsi sitters el a euepe eras, alenaye ore neiecie, shes
1. Fragments of pottery from Jerrys Flats. 2. Pentagonal point from
north of Elys Ford. Two Folsom type points...................
Moolkinesup theskapidanrate okinkernse Onde ee nec cieiael teenie:
1. Site at Skinkers Ford. 2. Down the Rapidan showing position of
LOWE THEMIS lem tT ap ceoeeernen torneo peserotceers fetes er joke vor hrodl tel = telomere oe
Stonerobyectsmnomusiteat Skainixerss Honda eee sence
Rottenyathomes kinkensmHondusitesnariaeceie cieeiden: imeciooe einer:
ISG bic: IN RECS caais tetvio clo DCRe nT rie EEO oats cho Hii PCIe Nene eaRom IGG Cancer
1. Looking down the Rapidan with part of Fox Neck on left. 2. Ma-
{eta PiLOMmOppPOSsiLem Moxa N(CCKueme ereerie aenecmierenicni icra
Specimens from left bank of Rapidan near Potato Run...............
WOWAEE) WINES ooconscovcd- et PRA Rs aS ERM St are ree ate oe a eee
TEXT FIGURES
Sectionsotthemleederer mapy 1O7Oneee cece acess acl ees serie ce ee
Map) ot the Rapidan-Rappahannock aneas..casess4essc- ise eeee see:
iRrovectilespointinometie slander ccc cee e teeters vie
iPesroratedatablep tonndenca tm Mottsmiume tee seer eile ie eieisiet errs
Specimens mnomthessornest tall sitesmriy sm aeiieteeis ire cieniers eres eieentele
eats, mesnoyeaal, wins MGielaeneals IRC Gaochaboesceougca5 bo souudcedd
Materialia trometherquantyewObnkshopsemee cess cee cilities)
Conicalebasevoranlanee vessel Rogers ondmeeese sees oe ence ola.
Fragments’ of pottery showing use of coils. .........0...06 28 ess eee ees
Eragment) of pottery, with) incised decoration.......+..--+.++--+-.---
Rianomlowerish thaprates kinket, suitor serie minis alee tere rire
THE MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA, 1608
ByDAVID I> BUSHNELL, JR.
(WitH 21 PLATEs)
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the seventeenth century the greater part of
the piedmont section of Virginia was occupied by Siouan tribes. The
villages of the Monacan were then standing on the banks of the James
and Rivanna Rivers and dominated the surrounding country.’ North-
ward, along the course of the Rappahannock and of the tributary
Rapidan, were the scattered settlements of the various tribes that
formed the Manahoac confederacy. The restricted area between the
eastern boundary of the lands then claimed by the Manahoac tribes,
which extended to the vicinity of the falls of the Rappahannock, and
the right * bank of the Potomac was occupied by Algonquian groups,
some of whom belonged to the Powhatan confederacy, others being
in alliance with tribes then living on the opposite side of the Potomac,
a region soon to become part of the “ Province of Mary-land”’.
For many years after the establishment of Jamestown the Mana-
hoac tribes constituted one of the most important groups in the colony.
But between the English settlements and the land claimed and occu-
pied by the Manahoac were the many Algonquian villages, dominated
first by Powhatan and later by Opechancanough, hostile to the English
and ever enemies of their Siouan neighbors. These served as a barrier
and prevented intercourse between the colonists and the tribes then
living beyond the falls of the Rappahannock.
Although the English encountered many of the Manahoac for a
single day during the summer of the year following the settlement
of the colony, there is no known record of a European having visited
a village of the confederacy or of having had other contact with the
tribes in the region they had occupied in 1608. Evidently the English
did not enter the country west of the falls until after the native
* Bushnell, David I., Jr., The Five Monacan towns in Virginia, 1607. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 12, 1930.
* When using the terms “right bank” and “left bank”, the observer is con-
sidered to be facing downstream.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 8
bo
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
villages had been abandoned and the people dispersed ; consequently,
very little is known of the manners, customs, and beliefs of this
ancient Siouan group.
The region now to be considered, part of the ancient country of
the Manahoac, extends westward from the falls of the Rappahannock
at Fredericksburg, up the valley of the Rappahannock to Kellys Ford,
and along the Rapidan from its mouth to near Mortons Ford.
The description of the various camp and village sites and of the
material found scattered over the surface of many of them, which
is presented in the following pages, is based on data gathered during
short visits to the different localities. It was not planned to conduct
a thorough examination of the region, but rather to make a reconnais-
sance in the endeavor to locate sites that might have been occupied
by the Manahoac in 1608, and to discover, if possible, additional evi-
dence of an earlier period of occupation.
At this time I desire to express my appreciation to Capt. H. K.
Baisley, Army Air Corps, stationed at Bolling Field, D. C., by whom
the aerial photographs (except pl. 2) were made; to H. B. Collins, Jr.,
my companion on many trips; and to F. M. Aldridge, of Fredericks-
burg, and G. G. Harris, of Stevensburg, for assistance in locating sites
and material.
ARRIVAL OF THE ENGLISH AT THE FALLS OF THE
RAPPAHANNOCK, AUGUST 1608
During the summer of 1608 colonists from Jamestown, led by
Capt. John Smith, made two successful exploring trips to the islands
and shores of Chesapeake Bay in the endeavor to learn more about
the nature of the country in which their new home had been estab-
lished. They entered many streams, up which they went as far as
possible, and discovered Indian villages never before visited by Euro-
peans, in turn being the first white men to be seen by the majority
of the native inhabitants. Both trips proved to be of the greatest
interest and importance, and brief accounts of them have been pre-
served, but only that portion of the narratives will now be considered
that treats of the exploration of the Rappahannock which brought the
English into contact with the Manahoac tribes.’
* Quotations are from the narratives of ‘“‘ What happened the second Voyage
in discovering the Bay . . . . Written by Anthony Bagnall, Nathanaell Powell,
and Anas Todkill”, in The Generall Historie of Virginia, by Capt. John Smith,
1624. All references to Smith’s writings are taken from the English Scholar’s
Library edition, edited by Edward Arber, Birmingham, 1884.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSHNELL 3
The information concerning the Manahoac gathered during the brief
stay of Smith and his party in the vicinity of that people constitutes
the major part of our knowledge of the manners, customs, and beliefs
of members of that group of tribes, and its importance cannot be over-
estimated. The names of four native settlements, two on the banks
of the Rapidan and two on the Rappahannock, were told at that time
by Amoroleck, a Manahoac Indian from Hassininga, who had been
wounded and taken captive by the English.
The second expedition left Jamestown July 24, 1608, and returned
early in September. Late in August, after having explored much of
the bay to the northward, they reached the mouth of the Rappahannock
and continued up the river to the village of Moraughtacund. This
was shown on the 1624 map as being on the left bank of the river,
and is thought to have occupied a site near a small creek, about 13
miles above the mouth of Corrotoman River, in the present Lancaster
County, Virginia. Here a few years ago, scattered over an area of
some 60 acres, were vast quantities of oyster shells, the deposits hav-
ing a maximum depth of about 4 feet. A greater amount of frag-
mentary pottery and a larger number of chipped boulders and pebbles,
chips of stone, crudely made axes, and other objects of native origin
are said to have been found here than on any other site yet dis-
covered on the banks of the Rappahannock, indicating the location
of a large native settlement.
At Moraughtacund the colonists met their “old friend Mosco, a
lusty Salvage of Wighcocomoco upon the river of Patawomek ”, who
was destined to serve them as guide and interpreter during their trip
up the river. Continuing up the stream, the English had a serious
encounter with the Rapahanocks, whose village, designated at T’oppa-
hannock, is shown on the 1624 map on the left bank of the river.
It may have occupied a site on the bank of the Rappahannock in the
present Richmond County, immediately opposite the town of Tappa-
hannock, which stands on the right bank of the river in [Essex County.
Thus far, only Algonquian tribes had been encountered.
The day following the skirmish with the Indians the English con-
tinued up the stream as far as their boat could be taken, where the
channel became obstructed by the rocks below the large island. Here
they went ashore to explore the country. They did not go far from
the boat but, as indicated by the position of the small cross on the
map, appear to have ascended the high ground on the right bank of
the river opposite the upper end of the island, beyond which lay the
country of the Manahoac.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
THE MANAHOAC
Soon after the English had landed in the vicinity of the falls of
the Rappahannock they were attacked by Indians. The fight lasted
about half an hour, when the latter ‘ vanished as suddenly as they
approached. Mosco followed them so farre as he could see us, till
they were out of sight.” One of the Indians was found severely
wounded and was taken to the boat, where Mosco attempted to attack
him. “ In the meane time we contented Mosco in helping him to gather
up their arrowes, which were an armefull; whereof he gloried not a
little.”
The wounded Manahoac soon recovered from the shock (p. 427) :
he looked somewhat chearefully, and did eate and speake. ... . Then we desired
Mosco to know what he was, and what Countries were beyond the mountaines ;
the poore Salvage mildly answered, he and all with him were of Hassininga,
where there are three Kings more, like unto them, namely the King of Stegora,
the King of Tauruntania, and the King of Shakahonea, that were come to Mo-
haskahod, which is onely a hunting Towne, and the bounds betwixt the Kingdome
of the Mannahocks and the Nandtaughtacunds, but hard by where we were.
We demanded why they came in that manner to betray us, that came to
them in peace, and to seeke their loves; he answered, they heard we were a
people come from under the world, to take their world from them.
We asked him how many worlds he did know, he replyed, he knew no more
but that which was under the skie that covered him, which were the Powhatans,
with the Monacans, and the Massawomeks that were higher up in the mountaines.
Then we asked him what was beyond the mountaines, he answered the Sunne:
but of any thing els he knew nothing; because the woods were not burnt.
These and many such questions wee demanded, concerning the Massawomeks,
the Monacans, their owne Country, and where were the Kings of Stegora,
Tauxsintania, and the rest. The Monacans he sayd where their neighbours and
friends, and did dwell as they in the hilly Countries by small rivers, living upon
roots and fruits, but chiefly by hunting. The Massawomeks did dwell upon
a great water, and had many boats, and so many men that they made warre
with all the world. For their Kings, they were gone every one a severall way
with their men on hunting. But those with him came thither a fishing till they
saw us, notwithstanding they would be all together at night at Mahaskahod.
For his relation we gave him many toyes, with perswasions to goe with us:
and he as earnestly desired us to stay the comming of those Kings that for his
good usage should be friends with us, for he was brother to Hassininga. But
Mosco advised us presently to be gone, for they were all naught; yet we told
him we would not till it was night. All things we made ready to entertain
what came, and Mosco was as diligent in trimming his arrowes.
The night being come we all imbarked; for the river was so narrow, had it
beene light the land on the one side was so high, they might have done us
exceeding much mischiefe. All this while the King of Hassininga was seeking
the rest, and had consultation a good time what to doe. But by their espies
seeing we were gone, it was not long before we heard their arrowes dropping
on every side the Boat; we caused our Salvages to call unto them, but such
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSH NELL 5
a yelling and hallowing they made that they heard nothing, but now and then
we shot off a peece, ayming so neare as we could where we heard the most
voyces. More than 12 myles they followed us in this manner; then the day
appearing, we found our selves in a broad Bay, out of danger of their shot,
where wee came to an anchor, and fell to breakfast. Not so much as speaking
to them till the Sunne was risen.
Being well refreshed, we untyed our Targets that covered us as a Deck,
and all shewed our selves with those shields on our armes, and swords in our
hands, and also our prisoner Amoroleck. A long discourse there was betwixt
his Countrimen and him, how good wee were, how well wee used him, how wee
had a Patawomek with us, who loved us as his life, that would have slaine him
had wee not preserved him, and that he should have his libertie would they be
but friends; and to doe us any hurt was impossible.
Upon this they all hung their Bowes and Quivers upon the trees, and one came
swimming aboord us with a Bow tyed on his head, and another with a Quiver
of Arrowes, which they delivered our Captaine as a present: the Captaine
having used them so kindly as he could, told them the other three Kings should
doe the like, and then the great King of our world should be their friend; whose
men we were. It was no sooner demanded but performed, so upon a low
Moorish poynt of land we went to the shore, where those foure Kings came and
received Amoroleck: nothing they had but Bowes, Arrowes, Tobacco-bags, and
Pipes: what we desired, none refused to give us, wondering at every thing
we had, and heard we had done: our Pistols they tooke for pipes, which they
much desired, but we did content them with other Commodities. And so we
left foure or five hundred of our merry J/annahocks, singing, dauncing, and
making merry, and set sayle for Moraughtacund.
Thus ended the first intercourse between the English and chiefs
of several Manahoac tribes. Other colonists may have entered the
country above the falls of the Rappahannock, but not until after the
native villages had been abandoned and the Indians had left the
valleys are explorers and settlers known to have traversed the ancient
territory of the Manahoac and to have left records of their journeys
into the wilderness, now the piedmont section of Virginia.
In “ The Description of Virginia”, 1612, Captain Smith* wrote:
“ The third navigable river is called Toppahanock. (This is navigable
some 130 myles.) At the top of it inhabit the people called Manna-
hoackes amongst the mountaines, but they are above the place we
describe.” It will be remembered that Smith and his party did not
enter the Manahoac country, and that all their knowledge of the posi-
tion of the different tribes whose villages then stood in the valleys
of the Rapidan and Rappahannock was evidently obtained from the
wounded Manahoac Indian, Amoroleck, through the Algonquian in-
terpreter, Mosco. Many of the native settlements were indicated on
the map of Virginia, issued in 1624, and their apparent accuracy is
*Op. cit., Arber edition, p. 52.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
very remarkable. Smith, in describing the map, wrote: “In which
Mappe observe this, that as far as you see the little Crosses on
rivers, mountaines, or other places, have been discovered; the rest
was had by information of the Savages, and are set downe according
to their instructions.”” Two such crosses appear near the falls of
the Rappahannock, one on the left bank below the island, the second
on the right bank just above the island. These indicate the most
distant points reached by the English in August 1608.
When referring to the several tribes Smith wrote (p. 71):
Upon the head of the river of Toppahanock is a people called Mannahoacks.
To these are contributers the Taursnitanias, the Shackaconias, the Outponcas.
the Tegoneaes, the Whonkentyaes, the Stegarakes, the Hassinnungas, and diverse
others: all confederats with the Monacans, though many different in language,
and be very barbarous, living for most part of wild beasts and fruits.
A paragraph very similar to the preceding, written by Smith, oc-
curs in the Strachey manuscripts,’ but the spelling of the names
differs, and there are other variations. Strachey” wrote (p. 104) :
Beyond the springs of the river Tappahanock (the second from Powhatan’s )
is a people called Mannahoaks ; to these are contributory the Tanxsnitanians, the
Shackaconias, the Outpankas, the Tegoneas, the Whonkentias, the Stogaras,
the Hassinugas, and divers others, all confederates with the Monacans, though
many of them different in language and very barbarous, living for the most part
upon wild beasts and fruicts, and have likewise assisted the Monacans, in
tymes past, against Powhatan, and maie also by us be dealt withall and taken
into friendship, as opportunity and meanes shall affourd.
In describing the country, Strachey had previously written (p. 37):
‘the third navigable river by the Naturalls of old was called Opis-
° Strachey, William, The historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia. Hakluyt
Society, London, 1840.
® William Strachey was the first Secretary of the Colony and remained in
Virginia several years, but very little is known of his life and career. He does
not appear to have visited the country of the Manahoac and may have had
very little intercourse with the Indians. The statements by Smith and Strachey
are so similar that it is evident one was quoted from the other, and on the
assumption that Smith’s work was prepared before the compilation of the two
Strachey manuscripts, it should be considered the source of much of Strachey’s
material.
It is the belief of the writer that the William Strachey who resided in Vir-
ginia, the first Secretary of the Colony, did not actually prepare the two manu-
scripts now preserved in London and Oxford, but that he probably sent notes
to England, where they were combined with ample quotations from the writings
of Smith to form the manuscripts, which were thus prepared by another. More
than one William Strachey, possibly related to the Virginia adventurer, lived
in England during the early years of the seventeenth century. Brief references
to the Strachey family of that period are to be found in the introduction to
the Hakluyt Society publication.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 7
catumeck, of late Toppahanock, and we the Queen’s River; this is
navigable some one hundred and thirty miles. At the top of yt in-
habite the people called Mannahoacks, amongst the mountaynes, but
they are above the place described in Captain Smithe’s mappe.”” This
was the present Rappahannock, the old Indian name of which was
Opiscatumeck.
Although it is to be regretted that more information about the
manners and ways of life of the Manahoac tribes is not available,
it is gratifying to realize how much was gathered and preserved
as a result of the brief contact of colonists and Indians in August
1608. But for the willingness of one wounded native, even that would
not have been recorded.
MANAHOAC SITES INDICATED ON THE 1624 MAP
As previously mentioned, only five Manahoac sites are indicated
on the 1624 map, one being that of the “ hunting Towne”, a tem-
porary camp, the other four probably being the names of the chiefs
whom the English met during the morning after the encounter near
the falls. In addition to these, three others were mentioned in the
text but not shown on the map ; these were Outponcas, Tegoneaes, and
Whonkentyaes. There is nothing to suggest where they may have
been situated—whether on the Rappahannock or the Rapidan.
Concerning the true significance of the eight names, it is not known
whether they were place names that would have been applied to
settlements through a long period of years or the names of chiefs,
who in 1608 were recognized and acknowledged by others and whose
people dominated a region that corresponded with the position of the
name on the map. Amoroleck, the Manahoac Indian, once referred
to himself as ‘brother to Hassininga’”’ who was later mentioned
as “the King of Hassininga”’. Evidently Amoroleck was a brother
of a chief named Hassininga, whose village then stood on the banks
of the Rappahannock just above its junction with the Rapidan. If
this hypothesis is correct, it should be assumed that the eight names
were primarily those of individuals rather than of places. The names
may have been provided by the four chiefs themselves, who at the
same time would probably have indicated the relative positions of
their villages as later recorded on the map.
The five sites will be considered separately in the endeavor to de-
termine where they may have stood in the year 1608. However, there
is no record of any of the native villages having been visited by a
European, their actual existence and approximate position having
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
been revealed to the English by the Indians after the encounter below
the falls. The names were undoubtedly recorded by the English as
given them by their Algonquian guide and interpreter, Mosco.
As yet it has not been possible to translate the names as given by
Smith or Strachey. They were undoubtedly in some Siouan dialect
and were told to the English by an Algonquian Indian. The latter
appears to have attempted to translate the Siouan word into his own
language, and this resulted in the names as recorded by the English
being a combination of Siouan and Algonquian, making it difficult,
if not impossible, ever to learn their true meaning.
Traces of many native settlements have been discovered on the
banks of the Rapidan and the Rappahannock above the falls, some of
which were undoubtedly occupied in 1608, but it will probably never
be possible to determine the exact position of any one of the eight
villages that were mentioned in the early narratives.
MAHASKAHOD
Mahaskahod was the name applied to a camp, possibly of a tem-
porary nature as distinguished from a permanent settlement. It was
described as “a hunting Towne”, where several hundred Indians
from four or more distant villages of the Manahoac were gathered
in August 1608.
This large encampment, if it really existed as described at the time
of the first visit of the English to the region, must have stood on the
banks of the Rappahannock some distance above the upper end of
the large island. The colonists, as suggested by the position of the
small cross placed at that point on the 1624 map, reached a locality
on the right bank of the river opposite the island. They probably
ascended the cliff that rises from the river bank at the end of the
dam just above the island, from which they would have had a view
up the valley. This point is clearly shown in plate 2. But the narra-
tive did not mention an Indian encampment in the vicinity, nor did
the English encounter any natives at that time.
HASSUIUGA
The position of Hassuiuga can be identified with a greater degree
of certainty than any other site on either the Rapidan or the Rappa-
hannock. It evidently occupied the banks of the Rappahannock a
short distance above the mouth of the Rapidan, at a crossing of the
river now known as Richards Ford, where traces of a native village
occur, and where, according to local tradition, an Indian town once
stood. This corresponds with the position of the name on the 1624
map.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSH NELL 9
TANXSNITANIA
This name appears on the 1624 map far up the stream that corre-
sponds to the present Rappahannock River. The region so vaguely
indicated on the map was settled during the early years of the eight-
eenth century. “Ina grant of 1717, relating to lands above the mouth
of Great Run, there is mention of a ‘ poison field where an Indian
town had formerly stood.’ This was doubtless the Manahoac town
laid down on Capt. John Smith’s map as Tanxsnitania.”’* The “ poison
fields” were identified as the area adjoining the Fauquier White Sul-
phur Springs. The site would be between 2 and 3 miles above the
mouth of Great Run, which joins the Rappahannock on the left bank ;
Great Run is some 5 miles above the mouth of Hazel River.
SHACKACONIA
As indicated on the 1624 map, Shackaconia was the first settlement
on the Rapidan above its mouth. The exact position may never be
known, but the village probably occupied one of the sites later to
be described.
STEGARA
Stegara may have stood on the banks of the Rapidan in Orange
County, a mile or more east of the Greene County line. However,
that would have been a long distance from the falls, near which the
“ King of Stegora’’ was met by the English in August 1608. Such
long journeys, however, were often undertaken by an entire village,
and, as will be told later, dugout canoes were used by Indians on the
Rapidan as late as 1682, when they went from the foothills of the Blue
Ridge to visit the English outpost at the falls of the Rappahannock.
One of the most extensive level tracts in the valley of the Rapidan
borders the right bank of the river at the locality mentioned, and when
partly covered with timber, as it probably was until cleared for culti-
vation, would have been a beautiful site for a native settlement.
Part of a large burial mound that belonged to the village is still
standing on the immediate bank of the stream. The mound was par- .
tially examined by Fowke’ and found to contain many burials. Quanti-
ties of arrowpoints, axes, and other objects of native origin have been
discovered scattered over the surface in the vicinity of the mound,
* Harrison, Fairfax, Landmarks of Old Prince William, vol. 1, p. 202. Privately
printed, Richmond, 1924.
*Fowke, Gerard, Archeologic investigations in James and Potomac Valleys.
Bull. 23, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1894.
ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
and in many respects the entire site resembles that of the ancient
Saponi village, Monasukapanough, on the banks of the Rivanna some
15 miles away.
‘DISPERSING OF THE NATIVE TRIBES FROM THE RAPIDAN-
RAPPAHANNOCK AREA
The English reached the falls of the Rappahannock in August 1608
and there came in contact with the Manahoac tribes whose lands lay
to the westward, but the first journey into the country beyond the
falls, of which a record is known to have been preserved, was not
made until the year 1670. Great changes had taken place, however,
during the interval between 1608 and 1670, and although there had
been a relatively large population living in camps and villages along
the courses of the streams at the beginning of the century, by the year
1670 the country was practically deserted.
During the summer of 1670 the German traveler, John Lederer,
of whom so little is known, traversed the wilderness as far as the
Blue Ridge. Earlier in the year he had visited several Monacan
villages in the valley of the James, and in the brief account of his
“Third and last expedition. From the Falls of Rappahanock River
in Virginia, due west to the top of the Apalatean Mountains ”’, referred
to his journey through the region that had so short a time before been
the home of the scattered Manahoac tribes. Small groups of Indians
may have remained in the vicinity, but they were not mentioned and
may not have been encountered. Describing this last expedition
Lederer wrote in part:’
On the twentieth of August 1670, Col. Catlet of Virginia and my self, with
nine English horse, and five Indians on foot, departed from the house of one
Robert Talifer, and that night reached the falls of Rappahanock river, in Indian
Mantapeuck.
The next day we passed it over where it divides into two branches north
and south, keeping the main branch north of us.
The three and twentieth we found it so shallow, that it onely wet our horses
hoofs.
The four and twentieth we travelled thorow the Savanae amongst vast herds
of red and fallow deer which stood gazing at us; and a little after, we came
to the Promontories or spurs of the Apalataean-mountains.
A crudely drawn map of the region accompanies the narrative, a
section of which is reproduced in figure 1. This shows the Rappa-
hannock and the Rapidan uniting some miles above the falls, and
* Lederer, John, The discoveries of. .... Begun in March 1669, and ended
in September 1670. London, 1672. Reprint 1002.
MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL
a
2
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53
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:
“2 e .“e/2e°
Fic. 1.—Section of the Lederer map, 1670. The stream on
the right is the Rappahannock. The broken line indicates the
trail followed by Lederer, “from the house of one Robert
Talifer.”
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
a broken line indicates the route of the party westward. They un-
doubtedly followed an Indian trail, which may have been about the
course of the road that leads west from Falmouth, on the left bank
of the Rappahannock at the falls, and crosses the river at Richards
Ford, about 1 mile above the mouth of the Rapidan.”
The name Manahoac was not used by Lederer when referring to
the native tribes, although it had been employed in the earlier records,
but it is believed the names Mahoc and Mahock of his narrative were
other forms of the word that were used at the later day.
As so often told in history, sometime before the spring of 1656
a large number of Indians, probably an entire village with all of their
possessions, ‘‘ sett downe neer the falls of James river, to the number
of six or seaven hundred ”’.“ They had come as friends to seek a
new home, not as enemies, and desired peace, not war. Later they
were attacked by the colonists in the endeavor to expel them from
the colony. The English had as allies Totopotomi and his Pamunkey
warriors. In the encounter that ensued the English suffered great
losses and their allies were routed and driven back.” The Indians
against whom the combined attack had been directed probably retired
up the James and were lost to history, but Mohawk Creek, on the
right bank of the James a mile or more south of the present Gooch-
land, is believed to perpetuate their name.
Some 15 years after the disastrous encounter Lederer mentioned
it and wrote in part: “a great Indian king called Tottopottoma was
heretofore slain in battle, fighting for the Christians against the
Mahocks and Nahyssana.” “ The latter were from far up the James,
and it is now believed the Mohocks, who had come from a distance,
” The road as it was used at the beginning of the last century was shown on
the Bishop James Madison map, first issued in 1807 and again in 1818; also on
the Nine Sheet Map, 1827. The road from Falmouth crossed the Rappahannock
at Richards Ford, then continued to Stevensburg and beyond, as it does at the
present time.
“ Hening, William Waller, The statutes at large .... of all the laws of
Virginia, vol. 1, New York, 1823.
® The exact date of the engagement is not known, but it occurred subsequent
to March 27, 1656, when it was enacted by the General Assembly “ That the
two upper countyes, under the command of Coll. Edward Hill, do presently send
forth a party of 100 men at least and that they shall first endeavour to remoove
the said new come Indians without makeing warr if it may be, only in case
of their own defence. .... ” (Hening, vol. 1, pp. 402-403). And it was probably
between April 23 and June 4, 1656, as is suggested by brief references to early
Council and General Court records. (Virginia Hist. Mag., Virginia Hist. Soc.,
vol. 8, no. 2, p. 164, Richmond, 1900.)
* Lederer, op. cit.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSH NELL 13
were a village or group of Manahoac who had been forced to abandon
their country to the northward, along the Rappahannock and the
Rapidan.
The pressure exerted by enemy tribes from the north undoubtedly
caused the dispersal of the Manahoac from the region they had oc-
cupied in 1608. The movement may have begun soon after the middle
of the century, at a time when the Iroquois were waging relentless
war against the Erie, thus leaving the tribes to the south of them
free to act on the offensive.
The difficulties that were being experienced by the colony along the
frontier at that time were expressed in several reports recorded by
Hening,” one of which is quoted, and although this is dated March
1661-2, it refers to events and happenings that had transpired some-
time before. It reads in part:
Upon the report of the committee appointed for the Indian affaires it ap-
pearing that the Susquehannock and other northern Indians, in considerable
numbers frequently come to the heads of our rivers, whereby plain paths will
soone be made which may prove of dangerous consequence, and alsoe affront
the English and destroy their stocks and gett the whole trade from our neigh-
bouring and tributary Indians; it is ordered by this assembly that for prevention
and of other injuries to the English from the Marylanders for the future, that the
honourable governour cause by proclamation a prohibition of all Marylanders,
English and Indians (which they have alreadie done to us) and of all other
Indians to the Northward of Maryland from trucking, tradeing, bartering or
dealing with any English or Indians to the southward of that place, and that
by commission from the governour collonel Wood be impowered to manage
the said businesse.
The falls of the Rappahannock were at that time beyond the frontier
of the colony, and it is easily conceived that ‘‘ the Susquehannock and
other northern Indians” had, during their southern raids, traversed
the region to the westward, entered the valley of the Rappahannock,
and thus caused the native tribes to disperse and seek new homes
elsewhere.
The historic “ Carolina Road”, which may not have acquired its
name until about the middle of the eighteenth century, followed the
course of more ancient trails that led from north to south. It crossed
the Potomac at the mouth of the Monocacy, reached the Rappahan-
nock in the vicinity of the present Kellys Ford, thence to the left
bank of the Rapidan which was probably crossed at or near Fox
Neck.” The crossing may once have been at a very old, long-abandoned
* Hening, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 153.
* Harrison, Fairfax, Landmarks of Old Prince William. Privately printed.
2 vols., Richmond, 1924.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ford about 1 mile above Fox Neck, just below the mouth of a small
stream now known as Sissens Run, but designated as Fleshman’s R.
on the Nine Sheet Map, 1827.
Leaving the Rapidan, the trail continued southward to the crossing
of the James at the present town of Goochland. On the opposite or
right bank of the James, above the ferry, is the mouth of Mohawk
Creek. It is evident the Manahoac, or rather some part of them,
moved southward from the valley of the Rapidan or the Rappahannock
over the old route and arrived at the James, where they may have re-
mained before continuing down the river to the falls. Their camp
was probably at the mouth of the creek, to which their name was soon
applied.
The name of another creek suggests the identity of the Manahoac
tribe that had “ sett downe neer the falls of James river, to the num-
ber of six or seaven hundred ”.
On the 1624 map the village of Shackaconia is indicated on the right
bank of the Rapidan a short distance above the mouth of the stream,
and it is assumed to have occupied a site on or near Fox Neck, or
possibly at the present Skinkers Ford, where traces of an extensive
settlement have been discovered. No one of the sites would have been
more than a few miles from the trail that led southward from the
Rapidan to the James.
The camping place of the Indians who had come from afar and had
settled near the falls of the James was on, or in the vicinity of,
the headwaters of Shaccoe Creek, which flows into the James within
the City of Richmond. A manuscript map in the “ Byrd Title Book ”,
in the collections of the Virginia Historical Society, dated early in
the year 1663, shows the creek bearing the legend: “ Shaccoe Creek
formerly Called Chyinak”’. It is now suggested that the new name
Shaccoe was derived from that of the Indians who had a few years
before settled nearby, believed to have been from the village of
Shackaconia on the banks of the Rapidan. Until their coming the
creek had evidently been known by the name Chyinak. If this belief
is correct it was the Shackaconia tribe of the Manahoac confederacy,
the Mahocks of Lederer, who defeated the colonists and their Pa-
munkey allies in one of the most important encounters between the
English and Indians recorded in the annals of the colonies. This
was the last great fight in Virginia between Siouan and Algonquian
tribes.
After the defeat of the English the Mahocks may have returned
to the vicinity of the mouth of Mohawk Creek. Although this is
thought to have been the site of the Monacan village of Massinacack
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSH NELL 15
in 1607, the name of the ancient settlement was in no way associated
with that of the stream.
During the year 1676 a fort was erected “ at or neare the ffalls of
Rapahanack river’, and soon the country that lay beyond the forks
became better known to the colonists. In 1682 Cadwalader Jones,
then commander of the Rappahannock Rangers, explored far west-
ward, traversed the region previously mentioned by Lederer, where
were to be found “ vast herds of red and fallow deer”, and may have
crossed the Blue Ridge. Among his companions was John Taliaferro,
who some years later testified that he had been with Jones in 1682
and said in part:
i)
We traviled up the South river till we came to sev'' small mountains & so
to the North River. In our travills we were sev'’ times on the North River
and went up the South River to the great Mountains where we discovered
the South River’s Springs to head into the Mountains. All our Judgm**
was the South river to be the bigest and were inform’d so by all the Indians
y* was our Pilotts; and saw an Indian y* made a periauger at the moun-
tain and brought her down to the Garison with Skins and venison, where the
said Jones Commanded.”
In this statement South River referred to the present Rapidan, and
North River was that part of the present Rappahannock above the
mouth of the Rapidan. “ Periauger ” was the name then applied to
a dugout canoe, made of a single log.
The brief quotation from Taliaferro’s testimony proves of much
interest, as it contains the only reference known to the writer of the
actual use of a dugout canoe by Indians in piedmont Virginia. It
also indicates that long journeys were made in such craft from the
foothills of the Blue Ridge, down the Rapidan, and on to the fort
near the falls of the Rappahannock, then on the frontier of the colony.
EVIDENCE OF INDIAN OCCUPANCY
As already stated, the region now being considered extends up the
Rappahannock River from the falls just above Fredericksburg to
Kellys Ford, and along the Rapidan from its junction with the Rappa-
hannock to the vicinity of Mortons Ford. The supposed site of
Stegara on the Rapidan, and of Tanxsnitania on the Rappahannock,
are beyond these limits and consequently will not be included in the
present narrative.
It is interesting to discover traces of Indian occupancy on nearly
every acre of cleared or cultivated land along the river banks, wher-
* Harrison, op. cit. The quotation was made from the manuscript of Talia-
ferro’s testimony, document 5: 1315, in the Colonial Office, London.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ever it is possible to examine the surface carefully. Often it is liter-
ally a trace—an arrowpoint, a bit of pottery, or a flake of stone.
Again, the occurrence of a large accumulation of material within a
rather restricted area will indicate the location of an extensive village,
or of a site that had been frequented by small groups at intervals
during a long period. But all the fragmentary pottery and objects of
stone encountered in the region must not be attributed to the Siouan
tribes who claimed the country at the beginning of the seventeenth
century. They had been preceded by other groups, many of whose
weapons and implements may now be intermingled with those of the
later people.
A large part of the land above the falls remains heavily timbered,
and some interesting sites may be hidden beneath the tangled mass of
vegetation bordering the streams. But some tracts that were once cul-
tivated are now overgrown; some such areas may be distinguished in
the photographs taken from the air. Springs of clear cold water
occur throughout the region. Game was abundant, and much may
still be found.
The depth of water in the rivers varies greatly, and freshets and
droughts often follow in quick succession, as during the summer and
early autumn of 1934. In some places the banks of the rivers are
of sufficient height to confine the streams at all times, but the flats
are frequently overflowed. Strange as it may seem, the greater part
of the material found has been recovered from land that has often
been covered by water. .
Many sites have been examined along both rivers and will be de-
scribed separately, beginning at the falls and continuing up the Rappa-
hannock to Kellys Ford, then along the Rapidan from its mouth
to near Mortons Ford. The distances between the places mentioned
are: From the falls to the junction of the two streams, in a direct
line, about 8 miles, thence to Kellys Ford about 13 miles. From the
mouth of the Rapidan in a direct line to Mortons Ford is approxi-
mately 17 miles. The distances between the same points by the me-
andering courses of the rivers would be at least twice as great.
All sites mentioned in the text are indicated on the map of the
region, figure 2.
THE ISLAND AND VICINITY
The waters flowing past the large island, and the rapids both above
and below, appear to have been favorite fishing places for all who
had occupied or frequented the region since it was first known to
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSHNELL 17
man. It was near the island that several hundred Manahoac Indians,
the last of the native tribes to claim the country, had gathered early
in August 1608, when some were met by the English who had ascended
the Rappahannock, and it is easily conceived that it had served as a
gathering place for others through centuries. As related by Amoro-
leck, the Manahoac man who had been wounded and taken captive,
the English were not discovered by the Indians until he and “ those
with him came thither fishing ”’.
Fish traps may have extended across the rocky bed of the river,
below the island, in the year 1608 as some do at the present time.
Those still existing have been used in recent years, but by whom they
were originally constructed will never be ascertained. Traps similar
to these, however, had undoubtedly been made by the Manahoac, as
well as by others who had preceded them in the region. They resemble
the traps in the James River at Richmond, described by Beverley more
than two centuries ago.
Fragments of pottery found a few years ago on the right bank of
the Rappahannock opposite the middle of the large island are illus-
trated in plate 3. The site, which was cultivated when the discoveries
were made but is now in grass, is shown in plate 2, on the extreme left
above and adjoining the circular track.”
The 12 sherds belong to several types of ware that differ in texture
and decoration. The nine pieces above are parts of rims of vessels.
The three on the right, a, are of a light yellowish-gray color and are
very hard. They were made of a fine, clean clay and contain no par-
ticles of stone. Although very hard, they are extremely porous, owing
to the disappearance of the tempering material. Evidently a vegetal
substance had served as the tempering material; possibly stems of
grass or bits of wood had been reduced to the proper size and mixed
with the clay. A fresh fracture through the lowest of the three speci-
mens revealed particles of carbon filling small cavities, but the greater
part of the material, after having been carbonized, had leached away,
leaving the many small cavities. The fragments are decorated with
incised lines.
The three specimens 0 are fragments of rims of large vessels. All
are black, hard, and compact, and are tempered with finely pulverized
quartz.
The two pieces c may have belonged to the same vessel, and resemble
in texture specimens a. The fracture at the bottom of the lower speci-
* All specimens shown in plates 3 and 4 were collected by F. M. Aldridge,
Fredericksburg, Va., by whom the pottery has been presented to the U. S.
National Museum.
SCLLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
SMITHSONIAN MISCI
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SPECIMENS FOUND ON THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RAPPAHANNOCK,
OPPOSITE THE LARGE ISLAND
4 natural size. Pottery, U.S.N.M. no. 373778.
VOL. 94, NO. 8, PL. 4
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
MATERIAL FROM OPPOSITE THE ISLAND AND FROM NEAR MOTTS RUN
Above, specimens from the vicinity of Motts Run. Below, two chalcedony
scrapers, from right bank of the Rappahannock opposite the island at the falls.
Upper figure 4 natural size; lower figure natural size.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 8, PL. 6
SPECIMENS FROM THE FOREST HALL SITE SHOWN IN PLATE 5
4 natural size. Arrowpoints, U.S.N.M. no. 373780. Four implements,
U.S.N.M. nos. 373787-90.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE 94 NOS iran,
SPECIMENS FROM THE FOREST HALL SITE SHOWN IN PLATE 5
! natural size. Pottery, U.S.N.M. no. 373779. Celts, axes, U.S.N.M.
nos. 373781-6.
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1, RICHARDS FORD ON THE RAPPAHANNOCK, ABOUT | MILE ABOVE
THE MOUTH OF THE RAPIDAN
The cultivated land is on the right bank of the river.
2, FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY FROM RIGHT BANK OF THE
RAPPAHANNOCK AT RICHARDS FORD
$5 natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373701.
no. 8 MANAIIOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 19
men follows the line of contact of two strips or coils of clay used in
the construction of the vessel but which had not been closely blended.
Specimen d is yellowish brown in color, very hard and fine-grained.
It does not show evidence of the use of tempering. The impression
on the outer surface is the imprint of a rigid, coiled basket. This
represents probably the oldest type of pottery found on the site.
The polished grooved ax, plate 3, is a beautiful example, being
very symmetrical and carefully finished. The material is a diabasic
rock.
Two flakes of chalcedony, plate 4, found on the site, had served as
scrapers or cutting instruments. The edges of both are very sharp
and in places have been finely serrated through use.
During a visit to the island in the spring of 1933 several small pieces
of pottery, a few broken arrowpoints made of quartz and quartzite,
Fic. 3.—Projectile point made of brown chert. Natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373776.
and a quantity of flakes of quartz, quartzite, chert, and diabase were
found on the surface near the extreme western end of the cultivated
fields on the upper part of the island. The area is shown in plate 2.
This had probably been the site of a fishing camp, and as parts of
the island rise high above the greatest freshets, it would have been
a place well suited for a native settlement.
When Captain Smith wrote regarding the fishing customs of the
Virginia Indians, he said in part: “ They use also long arrowes tyed
in a line wherewith they shoote at fish in the rivers.” Such a method
may have been followed by some from the shores of the island, and
one projectile point found on the surface may at one time have been
attached to an arrow shaft used in shooting fish. The point is sketched
in figure 3. It is made of brownish chert, a material seldom encoun-
tered in the locality, and is of uniform width and thickness, which
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
would have been about the same as the diameter of the shaft to which
it was fastened.
Many white quartz arrowpoints are found in the vicinity of the
island. These will not be mentioned in detail, as they are similar to
others found throughout the Rapidan-Rappahannock area, typical
examples of which will later be described.
VICINITY OF MOTTS RUN
A small stream bearing the name Embrey Run enters the right bank
of the Rappahannock about 3 miles above the falls, a little west of
north of old Salem Church. About half a mile beyond, also on the
right bank of the river, is the mouth of Motts Run. Between Embrey
Run and Motts Run there is a sandy flat several hundred feet in
width extending from the river bank to the foot of the rising ground.
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Fic, 4.—Perforated tablet found near Motts Run. 4 natural size.
Although the area has been cultivated for many years and frequently
has been covered by the waters of the Rappahannock, a vast amount
of fragmentary pottery and many arrowpoints and other objects of
stone are still to be found scattered over the surface. This may have
been the site of Mahaskahod, the ‘ hunting Towne”, in August 1608.
The pottery recovered from the area is similar to that occurring
farther up the river at the Forest Hall site, examples of which are
shown in plate 7. Only very small pieces were found, and in many
instances the markings of the cords had been practically obliterated,
worn away through exposure and contact with sand and water for
three centuries or more. A single sherd was discovered that bore
deeply incised lines and closely resembles specimens a, plate 3. The
fragment is very porous but extremely hard.
A piece of a perforated tablet, made of a dark talc schist, was found
on the surface near Motts Run. It is a material thought to occur
locally. The specimen is sketched in figure 4, one half natural size.
On one side are various simple designs formed of straight, incised
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSH NELL 21
lines, but the reverse is smooth. Its maximum thickness is about
3 inch. There are several specimens of like form in the collections of
the National Museum, one having been discovered in a burial mound
on the Kanawha River, near Charleston, W. Va., and others in the
valley of the Miami, in Ohio. The latter pieces were made of slate.
All, including the fragment from the site on the Rappahannock, may
have been of Siouan origin.
Several small flakes of jasper and chert were found that had served
as scrapers or blades.
As elsewhere, innumerable arrowpoints, most of them made of
white quartz, have been collected from the surface of the low grounds
extending up the river from Embrey Run. Some of these are assumed
to represent the work of the Manahoac and different tribes who fre-
quented the region in later times, but others are thought to have be-
longed to a much earlier period. Some interesting examples are illus-
trated in plate 4. The specimens a are made of a diabasic rock with
the surfaces greatly weathered. A small chipped ax, made of the
same material and with the surface equally weathered and worn, was
found about midway between the two runs. This and the points just
mentioned should undoubtedly be attributed to the same early period.
Other pieces included in the plate are made of quartzite, argilite, and
chert. ;
Shallow sandstone mortars, hammerstones, and roughly flaked
pieces that had probably served some purpose about the camp have
been recovered from the surface. As the first extensive low ground
above the falls begins at Embrey Run, it is readily conceived that it
would have been an important and long frequented camping ground
and as such was probably occupied the day the English reached the
falls a few miles below.
Large boulders, and pebbles of diabase and diabasic rocks, are found
in and near the bed of Embrey Run, and these served the Indians as
raw material for their stone implements. For a hundred yards or
more from the left bank of the run, and some distance from the
river, the surface is strewn with a vast quantity of fractured pebbles
and flakes, and often a piece of more specialized form—evidence of
the fact that this was a site where much work had been done and many
objects made. With few exceptions the fractured surfaces are altered
to the same degree as the ax and projectile points already mentioned,
but others have changed little in appearance since they were struck
from the mass.
bo
i)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
FOREST HALL SITE
The aerial photograph of which a part is reproduced in plate 5 was
made from high over the mouth of the Rapidan, with the camera
pointing a little east of south. It is looking down the Rappahannock,
as the stream bears to the left in the distance. On the right is the
Synam farm—part of the old Forest Hall plantation—a mile or more
below the junction of the two streams. The dwelling and barns, far
to the right in the picture, stand on land some 40 or 50 feet higher
than the Rappahannock. The flats bordering the river bank, where
once stood a native village, are mostly cultivated and are very rich
and productive. This is the first cleared ground on the Rappahannock
below the mouth of the Rapidan, in the midst of a thickly timbered
area that has changed little in appearance since the days when it was
claimed by the Manahoac tribes. Here the river banks are rather high,
with islands both above and below, and although when the photograph
was made (Sept. 17, 1934) the river was unusually high, the waters
had not spread over the bordering fields. This was a most desirable
site for a native settlement, one which had evidently been occupied
from the earliest times.
The entire surrounding country is of much historical interest, and
less than a mile west of the Synam house are the remains of the iron
furnace constructed by Governor Alexander Spotswood in 1727, the
first furnace erected in North America for the exclusive manufacture
of pig iron. This became known as the “ Tubal Works ”.
The large field on the right bank in the bend of the river proved
to be of interest when visited late in the summer of 1934. Much of the
surface was strewn with pottery, all small fragments, broken and
ground by the plow during the many years the land has been cultivated.
Some arrowpoints, a few entire but the majority fractured, were
likewise found, together with innumerable flakes of quartz, quartzite,
and diabasic rocks. In addition to the material discovered on the site
at that time, other objects were obtained that had been collected during
the past few years, all tending to indicate the location of an extensive
native settlement. This may have been one of the Manahoac villages
occupied in 1608, but some of the specimens appear to be much older
than others, suggesting more than one period of occupancy by differ-
ent tribes, the last of which ended about the middle of the seventeenth
century. Material from the site is shown in plates 6 and 7.
Many of the projectile points and other small chipped objects found
on the site are made of white quartz, and for that reason there is no
difference in the surface appearance of the specimens. although some
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA
BUSHNELL 23
may be centuries older than others. Typical examples are illustrated
in plate 6. One triangular point with a concave base, made of black
chert, was found near the river bank. It is known that quantities of
points of many types and sizes have been found scattered over the
surface during past years, and the same is true of larger objects.
Undoubtedly one or more burial mounds once stood nearby.
The four stone artifacts also illustrated in plate 6 are believed to
have been made and used during an early period of occupancy. The
surfaces of all are deeply weathered and have become so worn and
smoothed that it is often difficult to distinguish where flakes had been
Fic. 5.—Specimens from the Forest Hall site. } natural size.
removed. Specimens of this class have been very numerous on the
site, and the outlines of 11 examples are given in figure 5. These
vary greatly in size and must necessarily have served different pur-
poses—some as weapons, others as implements. Some larger and
others smaller than any illustrated have been found. All are made of
diabasic rocks.
Examples of grooved axes and celts found on the site are shown in
plate 7. These resemble more closely the artifacts found on sites
along the Potomac than those usually encountered west of the falls
of the Rappahannock. All are attributed to a later period, and the
difference between these and the four specimens illustrated in plate 6
is very apparent.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
A fragment of a thin ornament, possibly a perforated tablet, made
of schist was found near the center of the field. The surface is smooth
and has not become altered through exposure.
The fragmentary pottery found on the site, characteristic examples
of which are shown in plate 7, is very uniform in texture and decora-
tion. Little if any tempering material had been added to the clay of
which the vessels were made. Some sherds reveal a small amount of
crushed quartz, but this may have been natural. The fragments on
the top row are bits of rims of vessels. Some specimens were cord-
marked, others appear to have been decorated by the use of a narrow
roulette. As shown in the illustration, the cords that had been im-
pressed upon the soft clay varied greatly in size ; some were no thicker
than a heavy thread, others were very coarse. The impression on the
small specimen a resembles that of a rigid coiled basket, closely woven
and very regular.
Only very small fragments of pottery were discovered on the sur-
face; consequently, it is not possible to determine either the size or
the form of the vessels.
RIGHT BANK OF THE RAPPAHANNOCK FROM THE MOUTH OF THE
RAPIDAN TO RICHARDS FORD
The junction of the two streams, however large or small they may
have been, was always a desirable location for a native settlement.
In a densely forested country, trails often followed the banks of
streams, and where it was possible to use canoes, the streams them-
selves served as lines of communication. Consequently, the junction
of two water courses afforded three distinct routes that led away
from the camp, or by which it could be approached. Fishing may also
have been better at or near the mouth of a tributary stream.
In plate 8 is reproduced an aerial photograph made from high over
the Forest Hall site, looking up the Rappahannock, with the camera
pointing about due north. The mouth of the Rapidan is on the left,
and the farm on the right bank of the Rappahannock (on the left
in the view, which is looking up the river) is at Richards Ford, about
1 mile above the mouth of the Rapidan. The small, rocky, V-shaped
island seen in the foreground may also be distinguished in plate 5, and
had the water not been so very high, other islands and ledges would
be visible in the channel of the river. It will be observed how great
a part of the country remains heavily timbered, although a section of
it now overgrown may, long ago, have been cleared and cultivated.
A small clearing can be seen between the two rivers at the mouth
of the Rapidan. This was cultivated a few years ago, but when visited
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 2
on
during the autumn of 1934, it was overgrown, and the surface could
not be examined. However, along the margin of the higher ground,
facing the Rappahannock and less than 20 feet from it, fragments
of pottery and several quartz points were discovered in a stratum about
1 foot below the present surface. This indicates the exposed surface
at one period of occupancy ; the superstratum of sand was deposited
by the river during some great freshet..The level area is not more
than 2 acres in extent, bounded by the rivers and a cliff, and this,
when carefully examined, should prove of exceptional interest.
Cliffs face the Rappahannock from Richards Ford and beyond to
the mouth of the Rapidan. They reach the right bank of the river
just above the ford, but a short distance below the crossing the low
ground, between the foot of the cliff and the river bank, is about 250
feet wide. Much of the low ground is not visible in the photograph,
plate 8, as it is screened by a fringe of trees and brush along the bank,
overhanging the water.
A vertical aerial view of the river and adjacent land at the ford is
reproduced in plate 9, figure 1. Several large islands in the river just
above the ford are not included in the picture. The house near the
upper left corner is on a plateau some 50 feet higher than the river,
but the cultivated field, on the right bank of the Rappahannock and
extending beyond the area shown in the photograph, rises only a few
feet above the normal stage of the river and was under water during
the flood of September 1934. The fragmentary pottery shown in
plate 9 was found on the surface of the field a few days after the
waters had receded, and may be briefly described:
Specimen a appears not to be a fragment of a vessel, but suggests
a piece of wet clay that had been accidentally pressed on a woven
bag or a piece of matting. It is flat on both sides, very porous, and
of a light reddish color. The textile, as restored, is shown natural
size in figure 6. The long elements resemble a grass or some other
vegetal fiber that had not been twisted, and these were held together
by tightly twisted cords.
Three specimens, b, bear the impression of nets. That on the largest
fragment is clearly defined, and a double impression of the net appears
on part of the surface. The meshes were about one quarter inch
square, knotted at the crossing of the cords. The nets used on the
other two specimens had much smaller meshes, and the impressions
are less distinct. The two pieces c were probably similar to the three
preceding, but the surfaces have become smoothed, either intentionally
or as the result of use and wear. The color of all is brownish. The
very small quantity of crushed quartz intermixed with the clay may
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q4
have been added as tempering. The five fragments just mentioned
have the appearance of greater age than the majority of specimens
recovered from the site, and may have belonged to an early period of
occupancy.
The decoration on the small fragment d is more difficult to under-
stand. It appears as four parallel lines of cord marks, less than one-
quarter inch apart. Of these the first and second, and the third
and fourth, are joined by similar.impressions so placed as to form
rows of squares, but no indications of knots are visible. It suggests
the use of a net made of finely twisted cords, impressed upon the plastic
clay, with the connecting lines between two rows of the mesh smoothed
att mt
TURIN
SS
PTT
away.
.
2
Fic. 6.—Textile, restored, from Richards Ford. Natural size.
U.S.N.M. no. 373701.
Many of the fragments reveal the use of the roulette, and others
are cord-marked. The impression on e was produced by either a textile
or basketry, the surface is greatly worn. No examples of incised
decorations were discovered on the site. The three specimens to the
right in the top row are fragments of rims of vessels.
A few arrowpoints made of white quartz were found scattered over
the surface of the fields, and near the center of the plowed area shown
in the vertical photograph were several diabase boulders from which
pieces had been struck, with a quantity of small flakes nearby. The ~
surfaces of the flakes are only slightly altered, although they have
been exposed to the action of the elements for three centuries or more.
The finding of flakes in this condition indicates that some work had
been done on the site at a comparatively late day.
No. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSH NELL 27
As mentioned when reference was made to the probable location
of the five settlements indicated on the 1624 map, Hassuiuga is as-
sumed to have stood on the banks of the Rappahannock in the vicinity
of the present Richards Ford. Lederer undoubtedly followed an
Indian trail when making his memorable journey in 1670. On August
21, the day after leaving the falls, he and his party crossed the Rappa-
hannock “‘ where it divided into two branches north and south, keep-
ing the main branch north of us”’, obviously at the ford later to be
known as Richards Ford. A very old road not more than 6 feet in
width, and probably following the course of a still more ancient trail,
ascends from the river bank to the plateau at the edge of the line
of trees on the southern boundary of the clearing in which the house
stands. This may be traced in the vertical view, and it was undoubtedly
the trail over which Lederer passed ‘‘ due west to the top of the
Apalataean Mountains.”
QUARRY-WORKSIHLOP
Evidence of a quarry-workshop was discovered on the left bank
of the Rappahannock just below a small branch known as Polecat
Run, approximately midway between Ellis Ford and the mouth of
Deep Run. The site proved to be of much interesi and may be rather
extensive, but during our brief visit its extent could not be ascertained.
The low ground continues for some distance along the stream and
is here about 300 feet wide, from the river bank to the beginning of
the rising ground. But it was probably too low ever to have been
occupied by a permanent village, although it would have been a tem-
porary camping ground for those seeking material at the quarry. A
small ax of the early form, with its surface greatly altered through
long exposure, was found on the surface near the foot of the cliff, and
several quartz and quartzite points were discovered nearby. A few
bits of pottery were recovered from the surface some distance from
the river bank.
During September 1934 the Rappahannock was unusually high, and
the waters washed away the soil to a depth of several feet for a dis-
tance of from 50 to 100 feet back from the normal bank of the river.
The quarry-workshop was exposed along the face of the newly
eroded surface, where boulders, and fractured pieces of diabasic rocks,
quartz, and quartzite, had been uncovered by the flood. Intermingled
in the mass of sand and rock were numerous flakes that had been re-
moved during the process of shaping weapons and implements.
3
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Typical examples of the material from the site are illustrated in
figure 7. Specimens a, b, and d are diabase; c is a flake of dark
brownish shale. All are altered through exposure.
Se, ee
i Ei, ee
Fic. 7—Workshop material from left bank of the Rappahannock about 1 mile
above Deep Run. 4 natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373777.
oh CE
ROGERS FORD
Rogers Ford is a crossing of the Rappahannock just above a great
bend of the river. In a direct line it is 24 miles north of Skinkers
Ford on the Rapidan, where once stood a large native settlement. The
sandy bottoms bordering the right bank of the river at Rogers Ford
are extensive and become much wider above than below the ford,
where the rising ground soon reaches to near the water. The entire
area was inundated during the flood of September 1934, but the
fields were not gullied, and the only erosion occurred for a space of
not more than 50 feet back from the normal bank, where the surface
was lowered 2 feet or more. The land on the opposite side of the
stream appears to be somewhat higher but it could not be reached.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 94°; INOZ 8, :PL= 110
FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY FROM RIGHT BANK OF THE RAPPAHANNOCK
AT ROGERS FORD
- naturalesize, UeSuN Me no. 373702:
Quod SATIAM WOsA HOONNVHVddVyY AHL AO AATIVA AHL dN DNINOO 7
‘sdio) ary Auity “Ss ‘Q ydessoj0yg
LL “Id ‘8 "ON ‘+6 “10A SNOILOS1100 SNOANVTISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
VOENS 47 NOMS; (PEs d2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Photograph U. S. Army Air Corps.
1, DOWN THE VALLEY OF THE RAPPAHANNOCK FROM KELLYS FORD
Mouth of Marsh Run on left.
2, FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY FROM THE RIGHT BANK OF THE
RAPPAHANNOCK AT KELLYS FORD
natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373793.
3
2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE 94, INO=S) Peds
1. FRAGMENTS OF POTTERY FROM JERRYS FLATS, ON LEFT BANK
OF THE RAPIDAN ABOUT 2 MILES ABOVE ITS MOUTH
} natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373794.
7
2. POINTS ATTRIBUTED TO EARLY PERIOD
a, pentagonal point found north of Elys Ford. Two Folsom type points:
b, from near Orange; c, found near bank of the Rappahannock about 15 miles
below Fredericksburg. Natural size.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 29
_ A number of arrowpoints were found on the cultivated surface
several hundred yards above the ford. Many were broken, but they
proved to be of interest as the majority were triangular forms, some
having very deep concave bases. Several were made of black flint,
others of quartz and quartzite. No examples were discovered, how-
ever, of the more common types made of white quartz, such as were
found on the Forest Hall site and which occur throughout the pied-
mont. It is difficult to believe they are not to be found on the site.
One small flake of black flint that had served as a scraper or blade
was found. Scattered over the same cultivated area were innumerable
fractured pebbles, and quantities of flakes of diabase, some of which
were greatly altered. Many small pieces of white quartz that showed
evidence of working, were likewise found. It is evident that much
work had been done here, and possibly some interesting specimens
could be discovered beneath the surface.
A large number of fragments of pottery were encountered on the
surface near the river bank, a hundred yards or more above the ford.
They had evidently been exposed when the soil washed away, probably
during the freshet of last autumn, and all appear to be equally old.
Examples are shown in plate 10. Three specimens, a, at the top of
the plate, are fragments of rims of vessels, representing two forms of
decoration, as will be mentioned later. Below are seven pieces, ), all
of which are thought to bear the impression of basketry. The specimen
on the extreme left is more than 2 inch in thickness and contains some
very large pieces of crushed quartz, which had been added to the clay.
Next below are seven fragments, c, some of which may have belonged
to the same vessel. The impressions on the surfaces were made by
a loosely woven, rather coarse textile, possibly similar to that later
to be mentioned in connection with material found at Skinkers Ford.
The rim fragment in the middle of the top row is an example of this
ware. A small amount of crushed quartz, some being rather coarse,
had been added as tempering material.
The fragments included in b and ¢ are bits of roughly made vessels,
all of which must have been large. The pieces are now of a light
brownish color and are very hard. All are examples of coiled ware
as revealed by some fragments that have separated at the line of
contact of the coils, a feature clearly illustrated by the specimen shown
on the left, bottom row, in group c.
Eleven examples of cord marked sherds are reproduced in d, some
of which undoubtedly belonged to the same vessel. The two rim
fragments at the ends of the top row are the same type of ware. This
differs from that included in b and c; it is somewhat thinner, is of
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
a reddish color, and the paste of which it was made was of a finer
texture. A small amount of fine sand contained in the paste may have
been added as a tempering material, although it could have occurred
naturally in the clay. The walls of the vessels had been carefully
made, and no indications of the coils remain.
The conical bottom of a large coiled vessel is shown in the lower
right corner of the plate, and is also sketched in figure 8. The frag-
ment is more than 4 inch thick in the middle, and in color and tex-
ture it resembles the cord-marked ware previously mentioned. It is
broken at the line of contact of the coils; the end of one is clearly
shown and reveals how they had been added, spirally, to form the wall
of the vessel. This suggests an Algonquian type. The conical base
was devised to hold the vessel in place when in use.
One of the drawings made by John White in 1585 bears the legend:
“Their seetheynge of their meate in earthen pottes”’, and although
Asn CMe
Fic. 8.—Conical base of a large vessel. Coiled ware, with the end of a coil
exposed on the right. The edges of the fragment are smoothed and worn away.
Natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373792.
this is intended to represent a group of Algonquian Indians living in
northeastern North Carolina a generation before the settlement of
Jamestown, the description would have applied equally well to people
who occupied villages in the Rapidan-Rappahannock area early in the
seventeenth century. It reads in part as follows:
Their woemen know how to make earthen vessells with special Cunninge and
that so large and fine..... After they have set them uppon an heape of erthe
to stay them from fallinge, they putt wood under which being kyndled one of them
taketh great care that the fyre burne equallye Rounde abowt. They or their
woemen fill the vessel with water, and then putt they in fruite, flesh, and fish,
and lett all boyle together.”
This had been the custom through generations.
The site at Rogers Ford is one of much interest, and the material,
although not plentiful, indicates a connection between it and the village
that stood so short a distance southward, on the left bank of the
Rapidan at Skinkers Ford. Both may have been occupied long before
the coming of the Manahoac.
* Hariot’s Narrative. Quaritch reprint, 1893.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSHNELL 31
SITE AT KELLYS FORD
Traces of an ancient native settlement were encountered on the
right bank of the Rappahannock above the bridge at Kellys Ford. The
site was probably one of importance, as this is believed to have been
near the crossing place of the old Carolina Road, already mentioned
in connection with the movement of the Manahoac southward. If
this belief is correct, it is evident that the area had been visited by
members of many tribes in addition to those of the historic Siouan
group, whose camps may at different times have occupied both banks
of the river, both above and below the ford. Fragmentary pottery with
other evidence of occupancy was found scattered over the surface
of the cleared and cultivated area reaching to the river bank and ex-
tending to the foot of the rapids. This is shown on the left in the
photograph reproduced in plate 11, a view up the valley, with the
camera pointed about due north.
A short distance below the bridge, on the left bank of the Rappa-
hannock, is the mouth of Marsh Run, a small, sluggish stream that
flows through a famed hunting ground of past generations. Beyond
this are Elk Run and Elk Marsh, suggestive names that have come
down from the days of the colonists. A view down the valley, show-
ing the mouth of Marsh Run on the extreme ieft, is reproduced in
plate 12, fore 1.
Sand has been removed to a depth of 2 or 3 feet from an acre or
more of the site; the excavation thus made can be seen just below
the rapids, on the left, in the view looking up the river.
The sherds illustrated in plate 12, figure 2, were discovered on the
sandy surface adjoining the excavations, nearer the bridge. These
may be described briefly :
Specimens a are two pieces that evidently belonged to the same
vessel, the specimen on the left being part of the rim. It is coiled ware,
hard and black throughout, except where it is weathered to a light
brownish on the exposed surfaces. A small amount of crushed quartz,
some of which is very coarse, was used as tempering material. The
fragment is ~ inch in thickness near the rim. The surface bears the
impression of very coarse cords, but no indications of a woven fabric.
Specimens b are the only fragments of this type of ware encountered
on the site, and both may have belonged to the same vessel. The
texture and color of the ware, as well as the impression on the sur-
face, are the same as in specimen 0 discovered at Skinkers Ford on
the Rapidan and figured in plate 17.
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Specimens c are fragments of a very heavy coiled vessel with coarse
quartz tempering and bearing the impression of rather fine twisted
cords.
Specimen d is a small fragment bearing the impression of what is
believed to have been a rigid basket. Crushed rock, including a small
amount of quartz, was added as tempering material. It is very hard,
is reddish brown in color, and has an average thickness of 2 inch.
Specimen e is a small sherd bearing the impression of a very coarse
textile formed of twisted cords, evidently an example of wrapped
weaving.
No fragments with incised decorations were found on the site.
Fic, 9 —Fragments of pottery revealing the use of coils in the construction of the
vessels. Natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373793.
A large number of sherds from this interesting locality reveal clearly
the method of using coils of clay in building up the walls of a vessel.
Fragments have separated at the line of contact of two bands, thus
showing not only the size of the coils so employed, but also the manner
in which they had been placed in succession, horizontally, one upon
another, after which they were worked together in the endeavor to
make the mass compact and uniform. In many instances, however, as
shown by these fragments, the two bands of clay did not become closely
united although the newly applied coil had been rubbed down over
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 33
the sides of the one below it. This process caused the bottom of a
coil or band of clay to become concave in section, and the top of the
one upon which it rested to remain convex. Sketches of specimens
from the site illustrating this feature are shown in figure 9.
Large numbers of arrowpoints, mostly made of white quartz and
of the types found throughout the region, have been discovered on
the site and in the nearby country. Several points made of black
chert were likewise found on the site. Flakes of yellow jasper and of
dark chert were encountered near the sand pits; one of the former
had evidently been used as a scraper or blade, as the edges had
become serrated from use. Chipped axes of the early form and other
objects of stone are known to have been recovered from the surface
of the site in past years, but little now remains to mark the position
of the ancient settlement.
A few bits of pottery, including one small fragment similar to
plate 12, d, and several arrowpoints, were found near the right bank
of the Rappahannock opposite and just below the mouth of Marsh
Run. Traces of a camp were discovered a mile farther down the river
at the mouth of Mountain Run.
The flats in the vicinity of Kellys Ford, and especially those op-
posite the mouth of Marsh Run, have frequently been flooded, and
it is evident that the surface has been reduced since it was first cleared
and cultivated ; consequently few traces of Indian occupancy can now
be found.
JERRYS FLATS
As already mentioned, Richards Ford is a crossing of the Rappa-
hannock a mile or more due north of the mouth of the Rapidan. About
the same distance from the ford, a little south of west, is a wide
turn in the Rapidan some 2 miles above its junction with the Rappa-
hannock. Here, on both sides of the Rapidan, are extensive low
grounds known as Jerrys Flats, with a good ford across the river.
A small stream enters the Rapidan on the left bank just above the
ford, and this, according to local tradition, was the site of a large
Indian village.
Persons living in the vicinity relate that a burial mound formerly
stood near the left bank of the small stream 100 feet or more from
the Rapidan. This was destroyed some 40 years ago at the time of
a great freshet, and it is also related that when the waters had receded,
quantities of human remains were found exposed on the surface.
Pottery vessels and other objects are remembered to have been found
at that time near the skeletal remains, but everything discovered has
been lost or scattered.
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The position of the mound, the existence of which is well authen-
ticated, undoubtedly indicates the location of one of the Manahoac
towns in 1608. The low grounds between the foot of the cliffs and
the left bank of the Rapidan was probably occupied by part: of the
village, which may have bordered both banks of the river. The low
grounds have been cultivated for many years and have often been
overflowed, as they were during the late summer of 1934.
A slight rise is believed to indicate the former location of the
mound, and possibly the lower part of it has never been disturbed.
A large amount of fragmentary pottery was found scattered over the
surface of the rise and on the adjacent ground. Some of the sherds
appeared to have been only recently exposed, probably by the high
water early in September, a few weeks before the site was visited.
Examples of the pottery found in the vicinity of the mound are
illustrated in plate 13, figure 1. The 15 sherds in the upper part of
Fic. 10—Fragment of pottery with incised decoration. Found at Jerrys Ford.
Natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373704.
the figure are fragments of rims of vessels showing the variety of
cord markings and also how greatly the cords varied in size. Several
of the pieces were decorated with the roulette. Many of the rims are
smooth and flat, but others were decorated by pressing the plastic
clay at intervals to form a fluted edge, as is clearly shown in the photo-
graph. In some instances the depressions extended obliquely across
the rim, and specimen a is a good example of this form of decoration.
Thick twisted cords were impressed in the plastic clay before the
vessel was fired. The greater part of the ware is very hard, well made,
and contains a very small amount of tempering material.
The two specimens b differ from the majority, being rather more
porous and containing a greater amount of tempering material, either
sand or crushed quartz.
Among the numerous fragments of pottery found on the site were
some that were exceptionally thin and of a very fine texture. Examples
of the thin ware are shown in the lower part of the illustration. The
three specimens c are not more than } inch in thickness, and some
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSH NELL 35
pieces are even thinner. All appear to have been parts of rather
large vessels, possibly as much as 8 or 10 inches in diameter. No
rim fragments of the thin ware were discovered.
One small piece of earthenware (fig. 10) bearing an incised decora-
tion was found near where the mound had stood. This is a fragment
of a fluted rim, probably of a small vessel.
A few arrowpoints made of white quartz, and many flakes of quartz
and quartzite, were found on different parts of the low grounds, and
these, together with the fragments of pottery already described, were
all that could be discovered to indicate the position of a native village
that was occupied three centuries or more ago.
ELYS FORD
A bridge now spans the Rapidan at the old crossing place which
still bears the name Elys Ford. This is about midway between the
mouth of the river and Skinkers Ford and was evidently on the route
of Indian trails long before the settlement of the colony. Although the
flats on both sides of the river at the bridge have often been covered
by water, sand has been deposited in some places, and on other sections
the surface soil has been washed away, but nevertheless, traces of
Indian occupancy are still to be found. Small fragments of pottery,
arrowpoints made of white quartz and flakes and masses of the same
material from which pieces had been struck, together with several
chipped axes of diabase were found on the surface near the right
bank of the river just above the bridge. The axes are of the early
form, with surfaces greatly altered; the small bits of pottery are
weathered and worn, but are unusually hard and compact and reveal
the use of finely crushed quartz as tempering material. Although the
evidence is scant, it suggests that this was the site of a very ancient
settlement.
Points of the recognized Folsom type (pl. 13, fig. 2, b and c) have
been discovered just outside the area now being considered,” one in
the vicinity of Orange, another a short distance below Fredericksburg
in King George County, but none is known to have been found between
these localities. However, a specimen of a different form (pl. 13,
fig. 2, a), but which may be equally old, was discovered on the high
land, east of the road, about a quarter of a mile north of Elys Ford.
It is made of a dark, slightly mottled yellow jasper. Its dimensions
are: length from tip of point to middle of base, 2§ inches; width,
133; inches ; greatest thickness, 3’¢ inches.
* Literary Digest, June 9, 1934.
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
This must be accepted as a highly specialized form, and until a name
is supplied, it may be referred to as a pentagonal type of point, or
blade, attributed to an early culture. Very few examples have thus
far been recorded. Like the Folsom points, however, they may be
widely scattered east of the Mississippi, although not numerous in
any one locality. Examples have been discovered in the northwestern
part of Louisiana, in a region where many Folsom points have like-
wise been found, but the relation of the two types, if any actually
exists, has not been determined. To learn the distribution of the
pentagonal type would be of interest in connection with the study of
the Folsom points.”
SITE AT SKINKERS FORD
Skinkers Ford is an old crossing of the Rapidan between 2 and
3 miles down the river from all that remains of Governor Spotswood’s
settlement at Germanna, adjoining Fox Neck and Indian Town, which
will later be described. The ford is near the middle of a great bend
in the river, and immediately below it is an ancient fish trap that oc-
cupies the entire stream bed from bank to bank. This will be termed
the lower trap, to distinguish it from the upper trap, which extends
across the river a little more than half a mile above.
The site gives the impression of being very extensive and of having
been occupied and reoccupied by different tribes through generations.
When in its native state, with dense forests covering cliffs and ravines
and reaching to the river banks, it would have been one of the most
desirable locations for a native settlement in the entire valley of the
Rapidan. Fish were undoubtedly plentiful, as suggested by the pres-
ence of the traps, and wild game was always to have been encountered
in the surrounding wilderness. Although an additional water supply
was of no great importance, because of the proximity of the river,
several springs of sufficient size to supply the wants of many people
flow from beneath the cliffs that border the low ground.
Both sides of the Rapidan had been occupied, but only that part of
the site on the left bank of the river, extending between the two fish
traps, will be described at this time. However, the entire area is
worthy of careful examination, and possibly the right bank, being
the higher, would prove to be the more interesting.
The entire site is shown in plate 14. This is a view up the river,
the camera being pointed about northwest. At the time the photo-
*’ The specimen just described is in the private collection of F. M. Aldridge,
Fredericksburg, Va.
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yy Iby Aubty *S (EA) ydesojoy,T
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE 94 NOS Si elena 5:
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Photograph U. S. Army Air Corps.
1, SITE AT SKINKERS FORD ON THE RAPIDAN
Looking down the valley.
Photograph U. S. Army Air Corps.
2. SITE AT SKINKERS FORD ON THE RAPIDAN
Looking down the river and showing the position of the lower fish trap.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOUS 94, NO38, PE. 416
SPECIMENS FROM SITE AT SKINKERS FORD ON THE RAPIDAN
Above, various small objects, 4 natural size. Below, eight jasper blades and
scrapers, natural size. U.S.N.M. nos. 373795-6.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES IA. (NOM Ge Pe aia
SPECIMENS FROM SITE AT SKINKERS FORD ON THE RAPIDAN
Above, implement attributed to the early period. Below, fragments of pottery.
4+ natural size. U.S.N.M. no. 373797.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSH NELL OW,
graph was made, the river was higher than it had been for years, and
much of the low ground was flooded. A road can be distinguished
running from a group of barns near the left center of the picture to
the river on the right. This is lost in the fringe of timber, but leads
down to the ford, which here crosses to the left bank of the river near
the cluster of trees. This is just above the lower fish trap, which
cannot be distinguished by reason of the depth of the water, which
likewise covers much of the low ground on the left bank of the river
between the two traps. The second or upper trap crosses the river at
the far end of the low ground, just below the heavy mass of timber
that reaches the bank of the river where it begins to bear to the right.
Nothing of the history of the traps is known to the present occupants
of the adjoining farms. The traps have existed in their present con-
dition as long as can be remembered and have never been used.
A view down the river over the ford, showing the position of the
lower fish trap, is reproduced in plate 15, figure 2.
A sketch of the lower trap is shown in figure 11. This was not made
to scale, no actual measurements having been taken, but it is sufficiently
accurate to reveal the several peculiar features. The river at this point
is approximately 25 yards in width. The two lines of boulders touch
the banks and extend down the stream approaching to within 6 or 7
feet near the middle of the channel. The two walis then continue for
about to feet, roughly parallel. Logs extending transversely are still
remaining, both above and below the opening, under water and partly
covered by sand and gravel. The ends of these are held in place on
the right by a long log, extending with the current, and this in turn
is held down by a large flat boulder. Probably a similar log, likewise
held in place by a boulder, once stood on the opposite side. The
upper trap is said to be of similar construction, but viewed from the
left bank of the river, it appears to be rather more massive and to
be better preserved.
Although it is well known that traps of this general form were con-
structed by Indians in. prehistoric times, it is difficult to accept these
two examples as having existed in their present condition for more
than a century. But their history is unknown and consequently nothing
definite can be told of their origin—when and by whom they were
constructed. As previously mentioned, traps similar to these occur
in the Rappahannock just below the large island at the falls.
Undoubtedly, innumerable objects of native origin were once scat-
tered over the surface of the site or accumulated in refuse heaps,
but little can now be found. However, considering the number of
years the land has been cultivated and the frequent floods that have
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
covered parts of the site, it is all the more interesting to find some
traces of what may have been an extensive native village, possibly one
of the Manahoac settlements mentioned in 1608.
Many arrowpoints have been found on the site and on the adjacent
lands. The great majority are made of white quartz and are of the
forms so plentiful throughout piedmont Virginia, similar to those
4 Fic. 11—Plan of the lower fish trap at Skinkers Ford.
figured from the Forest Hall site and from the vicinity of Potato
Run. Axes of the early form, roughly chipped and weathered, like-
wise occur on the site, and a few fragments of cord-marked pottery
have been found on both sides of the Rapidan, but other material
has been recovered that is rather unusual.
Small jasper scrapers and blades were found on the surface, within
a very limited area, not far from the normal bank of the river, and
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSHNELL 30
although this spot was under water when the photograph shown in
plate 14 was made, it is clearly defined in the view reproduced in
plate 15, figure 1. It is the slight rise to the right and just beyond
the sharp turn in the line of brush and trees that marks the course
of a small stream that joins the Rappahannock far to the left in the
picture. Eight specimens are shown natural size in plate 16. The
one in the lower left is made of a mottled purplish jasper ; all others
are of a brownish-yellow color. The material was probably found
as pebbles or boulders in the stream bed.
In addition to the great number of quartz arrowpoints that have
been found scattered over the surface, some examples of triangular
points made of black flint have been discovered. Three of the latter
are illustrated in plate 16, together with various small flaked objects
which, for want of better terms, may be called scrapers, knives, and
perforators.
Chips of different kinds of rock are scattered over the surface—
evidence that implements and weapons were made on the site. These
are numerous near the rise on which the jasper scrapers and blades
were discovered, and at one place, within a space of a few feet, were
many thin flakes of diabase from 2 to 3 inches in length. These are
so greatly weathered and altered that it is often impossible to dis-
tinguish the natural from the flaked surfaces. Nearby was found the
specimen shown in the upper left corner of plate 16, probably a
cutting implement, made of diabase, the surface being deeply
weathered.
Very little pottery was recovered from the site, but undoubtedly
much remains to be discovered. However, fragments that had
belonged to three different vessels were found on the left bank of
the river, near the water, and these proved to be of much interest.
The location is clearly shown in plate 15, figure 2, in the brush just
beyond the edge of the cultivated ground. The area was under
water during the September freshet. These specimens are illustrated
in plate 17, and may be described briefly :
The two fragments, a, belonged to a vessel that would have
measured between 20 and 22 inches in diameter and probably about
to inches in depth. Having a thickness of only + to 335 inch, it would
necessarily have been rather fragile. The ware is porous in places,
but hard. It is of a light reddish brown, and as a result of unequal
firing is a more brilliant red in some places than in others. The
unusual feature of the vessel is the mixture of large pieces of crushed
quartz with the clay, some of the pieces being more than 2 inch
in length. Several of the pieces extend through the wall of the
4
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
vessel and are visible on both the inside and outside. The outer
surface bears the impression of what appears to have been a textile,
probably a material woven of cords of buffalo hair similar to that
known to have been made in early historic times by tribes in the
Mississippi Valley.’ Deep lines were incised on the surface before
the vessel was fired, as a decoration, and are easily distinguished
in the photographs. Narrow vertical impressions about 4 inch apart
and the same in length appear on the inside of the rim at the top;
otherwise the rim of the vessel is plain and straight.
Specimen b was similar in many respects to the preceding. It is
the same color and texture, and the textile impression on the outer
surface is the same, but the incised lines were not added on either the
outside of the vessel or the inside of the rim. The tempering is sand
or small pieces of crushed quartz, differing in this respect from
the very coarse material occurring in a. The second piece from the
left is a fragment of the rim. The sherds are small, and consequently
it is more difficult to estimate the diameter of the vessel, but it was
probably smaller than a, although the thickness is about the same.
Small fragments found on the site at Kellys Ford, already described,
plate 12, figure 2, b, belonged to a vessel similar in texture, color,
and decoration to the preceding.
Many small fragments of vessel c were found close together near
the fragments of a and b. In texture, color, and tempering it closely
resembles b. The outer surface bears the impression of tightly twisted
cords from ;/; to $ inch in diameter. Many of the cords are parallel
and in some instances overlap, but there is no impression of a textile.
Cords had probably been bound over a paddle, or some hard material,
and then applied to the plastic surface.
The three specimens a, b, and c are examples of coiled ware.
The four specimens d were found in sand deposited on the river bank
near the end of the lower fish trap. The surfaces of all are worn away
through exposure to the elements. The remaining five pieces, e,
came from the vicinity of the upper trap. These show clearly the
impressions of cords, some of which were very coarse and appear
to have been tightly twisted.
FOX NECK AND VICINITY
Fox Neck is a narrow peninsula, bordered by the left bank of the
Rapidan where the river makes a sharp bend. It is a high, rolling tract
some I2 or 14 miles above the mouth of the river and was included
in lands granted to Governor Alexander Spotswood early in the
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 94, NO. 8, PL. 19
ia © : oe
Photograph U. S. Army Air Corps.
1, LOOKING DOWN THE RAPIDAN WITH PART OF FOX NECK
ON THE LEFT
Camera pointing about southeast.
2, MATERIAL FROM THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RAPIDAN,
OPPOSITE FOX NECK
4 natural size. U.S.N.M. nos. 373798-9.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 8, PL. 20
SPECIMENS FOUND ON THE LEFT BANK OF THE RAPIDAN BETWEEN
POTATO RUN AND BROOKS RUN
5 natural size. Arrowpoints, U.S.N.M. no. 373800. Three implements,
U.S.N.M. nos. 373801-3.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE 947 NOtso ya eened
1, PIPE MADE OF STEATITE
Found on the supposed site of Stegara, Orange County. Natural size.
2. TWO PIPES MADE OF CHLORITIC SCHIST
Found in Orange County. Upper pipe, finished and much worn from use.
Lower pipe, unfinished. Both 4 natural size.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSHNELL 41
eighteenth century. Here, in April 1714, were seated the German
colonists who had been induced by agents of Spotswood to come to
Virginia, where they were to work the iron mines about to be de-
veloped. The name Germanna, then applied to the settlement, has
persisted, although the settlement itself has long since disappeared,
and only scant traces of it remain.
In the year 1730, as told in a County Court record: “ William
Bohannon came into court and made oath that about twenty-six of
the Sapony Indians that inhabit Colonel Spotswood’s land in Fox’s
neck go about and do a great deal of mischief by firing the woods
. and that he verily believes that one of the Indians shot at
him the same day ... . that the Indian after firing his gun stood
in a stooping manner very studdy so that he could hardly discern
him from a stump..... Whether these Indians had formerly
been at Fort Christanna or had always lived in the valley of the
Rapidan is not known, but the presence of a native settlement on the
neck in 1730 suggests that it was the site of one of the more ancient
Manahoac towns occupied in 1608. Shackaconia may have stood
nearby.
When gathered at Fort Christanna, the groups of Indians were
known to the English as the ‘‘ Sapponi nation”. This fact was men-
tioned in 1728 by Col. William Byrd.” He wrote (p. 88):
All the grandees of the Sapponi nation did us the honour to repair hither to
mMeetMUuss. ..05 This people is now made up of the remnants of several other
nations, of which the most considerable are the Sapponies, the Occaneches, and
Stoukenhocks, who not finding themselves separately numerous enough for their
defence, have agreed to unite into one body, and all of them now go under the
name of the Sapponies. Each of these was formerly a distinct nation, or rather a
several clan or canton of the same nation, speaking the same language, and using
the same customs. But their perpetual wars against all other Indians, in time,
reduced them so low as to make it necessary to join their forces together.
Consequently, the term “ Sapony Indians ” would have been applied
to the natives who occupied Fox Neck in 1730, even though they
may not have descended from the Saponi group. Mount Pony, a
few miles west of Stevensburg, probably derived its name from
that of the “ Sapony Indians” who lived nearby.
An aerial view of Fox Neck and surrounding country is. re-
produced in plate 18. The camera was pointed about northwest
and is looking up the valley of the Rapidan on the left. The road
* Scott, W. W., A history of Orange County, Virginia, p. 56. Richmond, 1907.
* Byrd, William, The Westover manuscripts: containing the history of the
dividing line .... Petersburg, Va., 1841.
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
on the right crosses the river over the recently completed Germanna
bridge, and the ancient ford, one of the most historic spots in all
Virginia, is less than 100 yards below. To the left of the bridge, on
this side of the river, stand the chimneys that belonged to a house
erected by Governor Spotswood, the site rising high above the water.
As much of the surface of Fox Neck and of the low grounds on
both sides of the Rapidan has been cultivated, worked over, and
occupied for more than two centuries, and with rains and floods
changing the land, scant traces of Indian occupancy can now be
found. But it is not to be doubted that a native settlement once
stood nearby. A few fragments of pottery and stone objects were
recovered from the cultivated field on the right bank of the river
(pl. 19, fig. 2). The site itself is shown in the lower right quarter,
near the middle, of plate 19, figure 1. When making this photograph,
the camera was pointed southeast. The site may also be distinguished
on the extreme left, middle, in the view looking up the valley.
The few fragments of pottery are of a reddish-brown color, hard,
and all contain bits of crushed quartz that had been added for tem-
pering. All are cord-marked. The ware resembles certain sherds
discovered at Jerrys Flats some miles below.
Projectile points made of white quartz, similar to those occurring
throughout the valley, have been found here, but only a few ex-
amples, some of superior workmanship and representing the rarer
types, together with a blade made of yellow jasper, are shown in
plate 19. Quartz is so easily fractured that perfect specimens are
seldom found on land that has been cultivated for many years,
and one prong is missing from the triangular point shown fourth
from left, which had a deep concave base. The second from the
left is a form seldom found in the Rapidan-Rappahannock area,
but all that have been discovered are equally well made, symmetrical,
and finely flaked on the edges. They may not have been arrowpoints,
but may have served another purpose. The jasper blade is of par-
ticular interest, as other objects made of the same material have
been encountered on various sites throughout the area.
THE RAPIDAN ABOVE FOX NECK
Mortons Ford is an airline distance of between 6 and 7 miles up
the Rapidan from Germanna. From the ford down to the great
bend that forms Fox Neck the course of the river is comparatively
straight. Extensive flats border the left bank with much higher
ground on the opposite side. A great part of the surface that was
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 43
exposed several centuries ago, and on which would have stood the
native camps and villages, has now been covered with deep deposits
of sand, and other sections have been washed away. As a result of
these radical changes, traces of Indian occupancy are seldom en-
countered, and no indications were discovered during two visits made
to the section. The floods of September 1934 had left much of the
low ground covered with a new deposit of sand, and the same con-
dition is said to prevail throughout the region.
Potato Run enters the left bank of the Rapidan about 1 mile below
Mortons Ford, and about half a mile farther down, on the same
side, is the mouth of Brooks Run. The G. G. Harris farm is between
the two small runs. During an unusual freshet some years ago a
number of axlike implements or weapons were exposed at the foot
of the rising ground, on the edge of the flat, between the Harris
house and the river. These may indicate the site of an ancient camp
or village, or the specimens may have been part of a cache. Three
of the pieces are illustrated in plate 20, together with examples of
white quartz arrowpoints found on different parts of the farm. The
three specimens are made of a diabasic rock, are greatly altered, and
have changed to a light greenish color. The arrowpoints are the
types so plentiful in the surrounding region.”
Traces of many camps and villages, together with much material
that belonged to different periods of occupancy, may remain hidden
beneath the deposits of sand along the river banks, to be revealed
from time to time as were the objects on the Harris farm. And it
is believed that much of this material, should it be discovered, will
prove to have belonged to a time long before the coming of the
Manahoac and other historic tribes to the valleys of the Rapidan
and Rappahannock.
The paucity of objects makes it desirable to refer to three speci-
mens from farther up the valley of the Rapidan, but still within the
limits of Orange County. These are three tobacco pipes, shown in
plate 21, and which might well have been found on any one of the
sites previously mentioned.“ They may be briefly described: The
small specimen, plate 21, figure I, was found on the supposed site
of Stegara, on the bank of the Rapidan in the extreme western part
of Orange County. It is made of a dark grayish steatite and shows
the effect of long use. The entire surface is decorated with incised
* All specimens illustrated in plate 20 have been presented by G. G. Harris
to the U. S. National Museum.
** The specimens are in the private collection of J. P. Thompson, Cedar Moun-
tain, Rapidan Station, Va.
5
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
lines, and the design suggests that appearing on several fragments
of pottery illustrated in plate 3. The two pieces in the lower part of
the plate are made of a greenish chloritic schist and were found
near the Rapidan a short distance below Orange. The smaller is
worn and smoothed from use. The perforation is very regular, as
shown in the drawing of the section. The larger specimen was not
completed, and although it had been carefully shaped and polished,
the perforation had been made for less than $ inch in the bowl,
and no start had been made in drilling the stem. A solid drill had
been used.
In August 1608, on the morning following the encounter between
the English and the Indians near the falls of the Rappahannock,
in Smith’s words: “foure Kings came and received Amoroleck:
nothing they had but Bowes, Arrowes, Tobacco-bags, and Pipes.”
And the same statement would undoubtedly have been applicable to a
great majority of those who had gathered on the banks of the river.
The pipes and such arrowpoints as were made of stone would have
remained to the present time, but all else would have disappeared.
Pipes were made of both stone and clay, and although they must
have been numerous in all the camps and villages on the banks of
the Rapidan and Rappahannock, no example was discovered on any
of the sites examined. This suggests the probability that pipes were
buried with their owners, but nothing is known of the burial customs
of the ancient Manahoac tribes.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MATERIAL FROM THE
RAPIDAN-RAPPAHANNOCK AREA
In the year 1608 the native tribes whose settlements stood on
the banks of the Rapidan and Rappahannock pursued the manners
and customs and practiced the arts of the Stone Age, thus representing
the last of the Stone Age in piedmont Virginia. It is readily agreed
that other tribes or groups had preceded them, and that certain
sites may have been occupied and reoccupied through many centuries.
During the periods of occupancy many objects were lost or aban-
doned, and these often accumulated with other material in heaps in the
vicinity of the habitations. Once deserted, the site soon became
covered with vegetation, which often served to protect the surface
of stone or pottery from exposure to the elements. Later the land
was cleared and cultivated, the heaps of refuse leveled, and the
broken pottery and other traces of native occupancy scattered over
the surface, where much remains to the present day. But to separate
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—-BUSH NELL 45
the material and determine the period to which the various specimens
should be attributed proves to be difficult and in many instances
impossible. Such are the conditions encountered in the valleys of
the Rapidan and Rappahannock.
Very few specimens of any sort are now found on the sites except
axes, projectile points, and fragments of pottery vessels, although
other objects, including shallow mortars, long cylindrical pestles,
hammers, discoidal stones, and pipes, are frequently described as
having been discovered in the past, only to be lost again or scattered.
AXES
Axes, and axlike implements and weapons of two distinct types,
have been discovered in the ancient Manahoac country and are
thought to represent different periods of occupancy. The first, and
undoubtedly the older, are the crudely flaked specimens of which
the surfaces are weathered and worn away as a result of long ex-
posure to the elements. Typical examples are shown in plates 6 and
20. They are numerous in the valleys of the Rapidan and Rappa-
hannock and represent forms encountered over a wide area north-
ward to New England and southward through Virginia. Specimens
from one site often vary greatly in size as is indicated by the outlines
given in figure 5, and for that reason they are thought to have served
various purposes as weapons and implements. Those discovered in
the Rapidan-Rappahannock area appear to be very old; they are
uniformly altered and must have belonged to an earlier culture than
that represented by the historic Siouan tribes. This belief is sub-
stantiated by a specimen discovered in the autumn of 1928 on the
supposed site of Stegara, near part of a large burial mound on the
right bank of the Rapidan in Orange County. Although the site is
beyond the bounds of the region being considered in the present
narrative, this single specimen must, nevertheless, be mentioned at
this time. It is a flaked axlike object made of diabase. After it was
used and later abandoned or lost, the surface became greatly weathered
through exposure. Centuries elapsed before it was found, the edges
rechipped, and it was again used. But the surface exposed by the
removal of the flakes during the later process of reshaping has
become only slightly altered, although the object in its present
condition has been exposed to the elments for not less than two and
one-half centuries. This is conclusive evidence of at least two dis-
tinct, long-separated periods of occupancy in piedmont Virginia.”
* Bushnell, David I., Jr., Evidence of Indian occupancy in Albemarle County.
Virginia. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. vol. 89, no. 7, 1933.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The crudely made objects found on the sites along the Rapidan and
Rappahannock are assumed to have belonged to the earlier of the two
periods indicated by the flaking on this interesting specimen.
Polished grooved axes and celts are thought to have been of much
later origin than the preceding. [Excellent specimens have been
found on the Rappahannock sites below the mouth of the Rapidan,
but no examples were encountered above the junction of the streams,
although they doubtless occur in some localities. Several are illus-
trated in plates 3 and 7. Similar forms are numerous on sites along
the Potomac, within the territory occupied by the historic Algonquian
tribes in 1608, by whom they had probably been made and used.
The specimens discovered in the vicinity of the falls of the Rappa-
hannock, and a short distance above, may have been of Algonquian
rather than Siouan origin, and obviously should be attributed to the
recent, or later, period. Many of the earlier, cruder forms previously
mentioned also occur on the Potomac sites, the majority being made
of quartzite, whereas a large proportion of those discovered in the
Rapidan-Rappahannock area are made of diabase or related rocks.
The collection from the Potomac sites were described and figured
by Holmes ™ some years ago, and much of the information presented
at that time will apply equally well to the region now being con-
sidered.
If the crudely fashioned implements found on sites above the falls
belonged to a time before the coming of the Siouan tribes, the
interesting question is presented as to what type of axes, or of axlike
implements or weapons, was used during the later period. Possibly
the Manahoac tribes had not been in the country for many years
before they were discovered in 1608, and if this is true, only a small
part of the specimens now found would have been made and used
by the last of the native tribes to claim the region. Bone, antler, and
wood may have been used extensively, just as the same perishable
materials were employed by other Siouan tribes at a much later day
in the country beyond the Mississippi. All traces of objects made
of any one of the three would long since have disappeared, and
this may, in part, explain the small number of artifacts now en-
countered on many sites.
PROJECTILE POINTS AND OTHER SMALL FLAKED OBJECTS
Innumerable projectile points, and many small flaked objects, the
use of which is often difficult to determine, have been found on sites
along the Rapidan and Rappahannock Rivers; others are frequently
** Holmes, W. H., Stone implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater
Province. Jn 15th Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnol., 1807.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 47
discovered away from the camp and village sites, among the hills
and valleys where they had probably been lost by hunters when in
quest of game.
Arrowpoints found in the region now being studied vary greatly
in age, and when attempting to ascertain the period to which a speci-
men should be attributed and the tribe or group of tribes to which
its maker may have belonged, three factors must be considered: the
shape, the material of which it was made, and the condition of the
surface.
As stated on a preceding page, the crudely flaked specimens made
of a dark diabasic rock, now altered and changed to a brownish color
through long exposure to the natural elements, are thought to be the
earliest form of axlike implements or weapons encountered in the
Rapidan-Rappahannock area. They have been discovered throughout
the region, and without exception are so deeply weathered that it is
often difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish the surface from which
flakes had been removed. They are assumed to have belonged to a
culture that preceded, possibly by centuries, the coming of the historic
Siouan and Algonquian groups who claimed the country in 1608.
Arrowheads and spearheads made of the same diabasic rock as the
preceding, crudely flaked and equally weathered, have been found
on sites with the axes, and it is reasonable to assign them to the same
early period. The axes and points should be attributed to the same
culture. Six examples of the points are illustrated (pl. 4, a), and
other specimens in the same illustration, although made of chert,
quartzite, and argilite, may likewise be of very early origin. Certain
of these resemble in form and size pieces found by Harrington
in the upper Tennessee valley “ and ascribed by him to the earliest of
three distinct periods of occupancy, the last being that of the historic
Cherokee. Some specimens were made of flint, others of quartz
and quartzite, and typical examples were figured by Harrington,
plate 48.
Points are often discovered on the surface that differ in shape and
material from the characteristic specimens of the region. They had
probably been made in some distant locality, to be carried by hunters
or warriors and lost near where they are now found. It is impossible
to determine, even approximately, the place of origin of many
specimens thus encountered, but later, when greater attention is
* Harrington, M. R., Cherokee and earlier remains on Upper Tennessee River.
Mus. Amer. Indian, New York, 1922.
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
devoted to the small flaked objects, their value in tracing the move-
ments of tribes will become more readily understood and appreciated.
Triangular points—some of which are found in the Rapidan-
Rappahannock area—are classed with those of indeterminable origin
just mentioned. They are rather few in number, and the majority
are made of a dark or black flint, others of a fine yellow, brown, or
gray quartzite. On some the base is straight or only slightly concave,
others are very deeply concave. Excellent specimens were found
at Rogers Ford, some of which may have been made there. Examples
from other sites are shown in plates 4, 16, and 19.
Quantities of triangular points occur on the Potomac sites, and
they are even more numerous in certain localities away from
Virginia. Many have been discovered in Maryland and northward ;
others found in the mountainous country of Tennessee and Carolina
are considered by some to be the characteristic point of the ancient
Cherokee. Many of the scattered specimens now encountered in the
vicinity of the Rappahannock and Rapidan are thought to have been
made far away from the country of the Manahoac.
The great majority of points found scattered over the surface
are made of white quartz, and are similar to others widely distributed
throughout piedmont Virginia. The various forms, some of which
are very distinctive, are illustrated in plates 6 and 20. As the
material of which they are made is not affected by long exposure
there is no change in the appearance of the surface that would
suggest, or aid in determining, the relative age of the different
specimens. Some were made and used by the Manahoac after the
year 1608, others belonged to an earlier period, but all now appear
equally old.
Small blades and scrapers made of jasper and chalcedony were
discovered on several sites and may be plentiful in the area. A
greater number were found in the vicinity of Skinkers Ford than
elsewhere, and here, as already mentioned in the description of the
site, they occur only in a very limited space. Other examples were
found on the surface near Motts Run, also at Rogers Ford, and
larger specimens have been recovered from the site opposite the
large island at the falls. All are very interesting, but it is not possible
to determine to which period of occupancy they should be attributed.
Part of what may have been a projectile point found at Skinkers
Ford was made of the same yellow jasper, as was also the pentagonal
point found north of Elys Ford. The latter specimen should, it is
believed, be assigned to an early period, to which the small pieces
from the vicinity of Skinkers Ford may likewise have belonged.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 49
The beautiful blade from opposite Fox Neck was made of the same
light yellow jasper.
Many flakes and small bits of the same material that do not
reveal evidence of use have been discovered on various sites, as
at Kellys Ford, Motts Run, and Skinkers Ford.
The jasper had undoubtedly been obtained in the form of pebbles
from the stream beds, but although large pieces of red jasper were
encountered at several places, neither implements nor flakes of it
were discovered.
POTTERY
The fragmentary pottery, occurring on many sites along the banks
of the Rapidan and the Rappahannock, differs greatly in texture,
decoration, and apparent age.
As yet no undisturbed refuse heap has been encountered in which
it would be possible to discover successive strata that would repre-
sent the several periods of occupancy of a site and thereby make
it possible to determine the sequence of the various types of ware.
Some such heaps may remain hidden beneath masses of vegetation,
but others have been reduced by the plow and their contents scattered
over the leveled surface, resulting in the intermingling on the same
site of sherds representing more than one culture. Therefore, in the
endeavor to determine the relative age of the fragments and the
periods to which they may have belonged, they were compared with
other pieces that had been discovered under more favorable conditions
in.other localities.
What is believed to be the earliest pottery found in the Middle
Atlantic region will be considered first. Harrington,” when exploring
in Loudon County, Tenn., discovered traces of very early occupancy
of the upper valley of the Tennessee. He distinguished evidence of
three distinct cultures that had followed in succession, the oldest of
which was designated that of the “ Round Grave people,” because
of their curious form of burial. The characteristic pottery associated
with the burials—only sherds being discovered—was “ marked with
parallel corrugated indentations quite different from anything seen
in the Cherokee deposits.” The latter were more recent. Examples
of the crude ware were figured (Harrington, pl. 47), and b in the
illustration appears to be similar to a small fragment found on the
site at Kellys Ford on the Rappahannock (pl. 12, d), as well as to
another piece discovered a short distance down the river, about
** Harrington, op. cit.
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
opposite the mouth of Marsh Run. Crushed stone had served as
tempering material in both specimens from the Rappahannock, which
are very hard and of a reddish-brown color. The “ parallel corrugated
indentations ” appear to have resulted from the use of a basket in
forming the vessel, thus preserving on the outside of the pottery
vessel the impression of the inside of the rigid basket.
When the surface of a bit of pottery has become partly worn
away, it is difficult to distinguish between the markings made by a
roulette and the impressions caused by contact of the plastic clay
with woven textiles or the surface of a basket. Coiled baskets are
thought to have been unknown to the historic Siouan and Algonquian
tribes of Virginia, but they had evidently been made and used by
others who had preceded them, by whom the early earthenware vessels
had likewise been fashioned.
Two fragments of pottery found on the right bank of the Rappa-
hannock below the mouth of the Rapidan bear the impressions of
basketry, appearing to have been of the coiled variety. Of these, the
specimen found opposite the falls, shown in plate 3, d, is the more
interesting. Although the surface has become considerably worn and
smoothed the impression left by the basketry in the plastic clay
remains clearly defined. The second of the two examples (pl. 7, a)
was found a few miles up the river on the Forest Hall site. This at
first glance suggests the impression of a roulette, but it is believed
to be that of a basket. Several very good examples of similar ware
discovered farther up the Rappahannock at Rogers Ford are likewise
believed to have belonged to a period that preceded the coming of the
historic Siouan tribes to the Rapidan-Rappahannock area.
Fragments of ware that bear on the surface clearly made im-
pressions of coiled basketry have been discovered on the Anacostia
site in the District of Columbia. Other examples have been found in
North Carolina, in the vicinity of Albemarle Sound in the northeastern
part of the State, in Carteret County (U.S.N.M. No. 140929)
midway down the coast, in New Hanover County just north of the
mouth of Cape Fear River,” and in Granville County near the
Virginia line. Farther south, fragments of pottery bearing similar
impressions have been reported from near the mouth of the Santee
River, midway down the coast of South Carolina; in the vicinity of
Montgomery, Ala.; and in Clarke County (U.S.N.M. 331027) and
Oktibbeha County (U.S.N.M. 369327), Miss., both in the eastern
* Bushnell, David I., Jr., Notes on the archaeology of New Hanover County.
In Cape Fear Chronicles, by James Sprunt, Raleigh, N. C., 1914.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 51
part of the State, the former being bounded on the east by the
Alabama line.
Similar material must occur on many sites along the coast as well
as in the interior, and its distinctive feature makes it easily recognized.
As previously mentioned, this appears to be one of the earliest types
of earthenware encountered in the Middle Atlantic and Southeastern
areas, and the extreme limits of the region in which it is found
should be determined.
Parts of three vessels found on the left bank of the Rapidan at
Skinkers Ford closely resemble material from southwest Virginia
figured and described by Holmes.” Several specimens were illustrated
(Holmes, pl. 133) and described as “ Potsherds with textile markings,
New River Valley, Virginia.’’ The textile impression is exactly like
that on plate 17, a and b, from Skinkers Ford on the Rapidan, and
plate 12, b, from Kellys Ford on the Rappahannock. Examples were
also found at Rogers Ford, also on the Rappahannock and less than
24 miles from Skinkers Ford. It is interesting ware, and Holmes
wrote regarding it (p. 150): “ The people concerned may have
belonged to the Algonquian stock, for Algonquian features decidedly
prevail, but there is a possibility that they were Siouan.”’ The same
question of identity is presented by the pieces from the Rapidan-
Rappahannock region, an area which, although claimed by the
Manahoac in 1608, may earlier have been the home of Algonquian
tribes. In this connection it is interesting to record that a conical
base of a vessel was found in contact with the fragments at Rogers
Ford, this form of base being suggestive of Algonquian pottery.
A small fragment of similar ware, of a reddish color and bearing
the same impressions as on specimens 0b, from the sites at Kellys
Ford and Skinkers Ford (pl. 12, fig. 2; pl. 17), and also from Rogers
Ford (pl. 10), was found at Anacostia, in the District of Columbia,
some distance from the country occupied by Siouan tribes at the
beginning of the seventeenth century. Other small sherds found at
Anacostia show the same impression on the surface but contain
rather large pieces of crushed quartz as tempering, in this respect
again resembling certain pottery fragments from the site on the
Rapidan.
The impression of nets are more readily distinguished, and the
meshes are often clearly defined. Several good examples of pottery
so decorated were found at Richards Ford, on the Rappahannock, a
” Holmes, W. H., Aboriginal pottery of the Eastern United States. In 20th
Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1903.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
mile above the mouth of the Rapidan, and are figured in plate g. It
was to this type of ware that Holmes referred when he wrote (pp.
154-155):° “ This pottery is found in more or less typical forms
intermingled with the ordinary varieties of ware on sites extending
from the Yadkin to the Delaware.”” He was then describing a sherd
discovered in the great shell heap at the mouth of Popes Creek, on
the left bank of the Potomac, some miles below Washington, D. C.,
and had previously written, when comparing the latter with fragments
found near the Yadkin, in North Carolina: ‘‘ The materials are the
same, the shape, size, degree of rudeness, treatment of surface, and
decoration are the same, even the netting and the practice of partially
obliterating the net impressions on the whole or a part of the vessels
are the same.” It is interesting to find at Richards Ford specimens
on which the net impressions had likewise been partially obliterated,
but in some instances this may have been caused by the wearing
away of the surface during long use of the vessel.
Later discoveries seem to extend the net-marked ware still farther
south. An illustration in the account of the partial examination of
the great mound on Stalling’s Island, in the Savannah River near
Augusta, Georgia,” shows one fragment of pottery that appears to
bear the impression of a net (Claflin, pl. 27), but it is not described,
nor are any dimensions given.
As shown by comparison with material from other localities, the
fragments of pottery from the Rapidan-Rappahannock area, which
have already been mentioned, represent types of ware and forms of
decoration that are widely distributed, though not very plentiful,
and which have, in some instances, been discovered under conditions
that prove their comparatively great age. It is now believed that
all such ware encountered on sites along the Rapidan and Rappa-
hannock should be attributed to a tribe, or tribes, who had inhabited
the region before the coming of the historic Siouan and Algonquian
groups, and who extended over a wide region both north and south
from Virginia. Obviously, other pottery found on the same sites
belonged to a much later period of occupancy.
There is a remarkable similarity between certain sherds shown
in plate 3, from the site on the right bank of the Rappahannock
facing the falls, and many pieces found at Stalling’s Island. The
same form of decoration was employed at both sites, and in some
instances the roulette, punctate, and incised designs were used in
“= Holmes, op. cit.
“Claflin, William H., Jr., The Stalling’s Island Mound, Columbia County,
Georgia. Papers Peabody Mus., Harvard Univ., vol. 14, no. 1, 1931.
no. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL 53
similar combinations on the surface of a vessel. It is also interesting
to consider the similarity of the two sites, both being at the falls
of large streams. All this suggests more than a mere coincidence.
Many of the fragments that may be attributed to the later period
are of rather heavy ware, cord-marked and with straight rims. But
pieces of vessels of a superior quality were discovered on the site
at Jerrys Ford, examples of which are illustrated in plate 13. Some
of this is thought to have come from the burial mound that formerly
stood near where the sherds were found. Among the pieces recovered
were fragments of many very thin, fragile vessels, some being less
than 4 inch in thickness, cord-marked, and beautifully made. Typical
specimens are shown at the bottom of plate 13. The outer surface
of the thin ware is a light brownish color, but the inner surfaces are a
lustrous black, which undoubtedly resulted from a process employed
in the endeavor to make the vessel impervious to water.
Many customs were probably practiced in common by the potters
of the different eastern tribes. Years ago, while among the Cherokee
in the mountains of Carolina, Mooney met a woman who knew the
art of pottery making. Later, during the summer of 1906, Harrington
visited the Cherokee in North Carolina, and learned from the same
old woman—Iwi Katalsta, by name—the secrets of her art.” It
is an interesting narrative, from which the trollowing is quoted
(Cp: 220):
“Tn order to be good for cooking, these pots should be smoked,” she said. “ If
this is not done the water will soak through.” So she dropped a handful of
bran in each one while they were still almost red-hot, stirred it with her stick,
tipped the pots this way and that, and finally, turning out the now blazing
bran from each in turn, inverted the vessels upon it. In this way the inside
was smoked black and rendered impervious and this without leaving any odor
of smoke in the vessels when they became cold. Generally, Iwi told me, crushed
corn-cobs were employed for this purpose, but she always used bran when cobs
were not available.
This may explain the cause of the black inner surface of the thin
vessels from Jerrys Ford. Small fragments of similar ware were
found on the nearby site at Richards Ford, and it is reasonable to
believe the two settlements existed at the same time.
The only example of incised decoration discovered above Motts
Run was found at Jerrys Ford, a small piece sketched in figure ro.
No evidence of a looped handle, nor of a projection of any sort on
the outside of a vessel, was encountered on any site.
* Harrington, M. R., The last of the Iroquois potters. New York State Mus.
Bull. 133, 1900.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Much of the later ware was undoubtedly the work of the Manahoac
tribes, and some of the vessels may have been made and used after
the year 1608.
CORDS
Many of the vessels thought to have been made during the recent,
or later, period were decorated by pressing cords into the plastic clay.
Simple designs were thus produced—always straight lines, which
usually extended only a short distance below the rim. Specimens of
pottery decorated in this manner were found on various sites, but
the majority of the more interesting pieces were discovered on Jerrys
Flats ; examples of these are shown in plate 13. The cords thus used
varied greatly in size from that of a coarse thread to others more
than } inch in diameter.
It is evident that the Indians of Virginia, at the beginning of the
seventeenth century, made a variety of cords to serve different
purposes. This was referred to by Captain Smith” soon after the
settlement of the colony when he wrote:
Betwixt their hands and thighes, their women use to spin the barks of trees,
deare sinews, or a kind of grasse they call Pemmenaw;* of these they make a
thred very even and readily. This thred serveth for many uses, as about their
housing, apparell; and also they make nets for fishing, for the quantity as
formally braded as ours. They make also with it lines for angles.
This readily explains the difference in size and appearance of the
many impressions of cords that appear on the surface of the fragments
of vessels. As to the materials used in making the cords, some were
probably formed by twisting the bark of a milkweed as described by
Colonel Byrd“ more than two centuries ago. The milkweed was
the Indian hemp of the early settlers, and is thought to have been the
plant mentioned by Byrd as “ silk grass”, known to many persons
in Virginia at the present time as silk weed. On November 10, 1728,
Colonel Byrd described certain customs of the Saponi, a Siouan
tribe related to the Manahoac, and wrote in part (p. 81): “The
Indians use it in all their little manufactures, twisting a thread of it
that is prodigiously strong. Of this they make their baskets and the
** Op. cit., Arber edition, p. 60.
* Rather than being the name of “a kind of grasse” this may be an AI-
gonquian word for some cord, rope, or thread. Strachey in “A Dictionarie of
the Indian Language”, gave the following “ Penninaugh, a rope”, and “ Peym-
mata, threed”’.
* Byrd, William, The Westover manuscripts: containing the history of the
dividing line . . . . Petersburg, Va., 1841.
”
No. 8 MANAHOAC TRIBES IN VIRGINIA—BUSHNELL
tn
on
aprons which their women wear about their middles, for decency’s
sake.” The plant mentioned by Colonel Byrd may have been the
Asclepias pulchra. Undoubtedly, the Manahoac likewise made exten-
sive use of the plant, which would have been found growing through-
out their country.
Finely twisted sinew was used, as related by Captain Smith, but
the larger, coarser cords were probably formed of the wool or hair
of wild animals. Buffalo must have been known to the people by
whom the pottery was made, as it is evident they were to have been
encountered within a few miles of the falls of the Rappahannock only
6 years after the settlement of Jamestown. To quote from Purchas,
when he wrote concerning conditions in Virginia (p. 759):
Master ]Vhitaker in his letter and book from Henrico 1612, testifieth the
health and welfare of the Colonie. Samuel Argall in the yeare 1613, affirmed
likewise that he found the state of Virginia farre better then was reported.
In one voyage they had gotten one thousand and one hundred bushells of corne:
they found a slow kinde of Cattell, as bigge as Kine, which were good meate.
Buffalo alone among the beasts encountered in Virginia could have
been so described. But they may never have been very numerous,
which would account for the lack of references by other writers of
the period.
Cords made of the wool and hair of the buffalo were undoubtedly
woven into a textile such as was impressed on the surface of large
vessels, fragments of some of which were discovered on the site
at Skinkers Ford. Bags would have been made of the same mate-
rial, similar to specimens collected in the Mississippi Valley in the
eighteenth century and now preserved in European museums.
The native tribes of the Rapidan-Rappahannock area may also
have followed a custom practiced by the Indians of Carolina of
using the hair or wool of the opossum as mentioned by Lawson“
who wrote, when referring to the opossum (p. 121): “ Their Fur
is not esteem’d nor used, save that the Indians spin it into Girdles
and Garters.”
CONCLUSION
The material discovered during the recent examination of sites
on the banks of the Rapidan and Rappahannock Rivers indicates two,
and possibly more, distinct periods of occupation, which may have
been separated by centuries.
* Purchas, Samuel, Purchas his Pilgrimage... . . Second ed., London, 1614.
*6 Lawson, John, History of Carolina, London, 1714.
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
No stratified mass of camp refuse was encountered to reveal the
sequence of the different types of pottery, and consequently it was
necessary to compare the sherds with others of similar ware that
had been discovered elsewhere under such conditions as would de-
termine their relative age. Sherds bearing the impression of basketry
are believed by the writer to be one of the earliest types of earthen-
ware found in the Middle Atlantic and Southeastern areas and one
which should be attributed to a very early culture. Fragments of this
ware have been recovered from sites in the Rapidan-Rappahannock
area, and other similar sherds occur far southward on the Atlantic
Coast, thence westward to near the Mississippi, proving its widespread
distribution. This early period of occupancy of the valleys of the
Rapidan and Rappahannock is believed to have preceded by centuries
the arrival of the historic Siouan groups, but the direction from which
the ancient tribes first entered the region has not been determined,
although it is the belief of the writer that it was from the north.
Fragments of other vessels found on many sites undoubtedly represent
the work of the historic Siouan and Algonquian tribes, and many of
the vessels may have been made and used even after the settlement of
Jamestown.
Stone implements likewise suggest two clearly defined periods,
the earlier being represented by the crudely flaked objects, altered
through long exposure, the later by the polished celts and grooved
axes, much fewer in number.
The discovery of points of the recognized Folsom type, specimens
of superior workmanship, presents a problem that may be difficult
to solve. One example was found near the Rapidan a short distance
west of the region now being considered, another was discovered near
the banks of the Rappahannock some 15 miles below Fredericksburg.
The Rapidan-Rappahannock area, therefore, must have been tra-
versed, if not occupied, by the makers of this highly specialized form
of point. Other objects of stone were necessarily made and used
during the same period, and possibly some of the oldest of the num-
erous flaked implements were the work of the makers of the Folsom
points ; however, that is another question that remains to be answered.
Thus it is evident that the country beyond the falls of the Rappa-
hannock, the Rapidan-Rappahannock area, has been occupied or
frequented by man through the centuries, but floods and other forces
of nature have so changed the surface of the narrow valleys that
scant traces of the native camps and villages remain.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 9
Chomas Lincoln Casey JFund
Rev IEW OF: THE
GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD
(COLEOPTERA : SCARABAEIDAE)
BY
EDWARD A. CHAPIN
Curator, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum
“PHOS, |
nae
RINGTO
(PUBLICATION 3338)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
SEPTEMBER 2351935
THe Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund
REVIEW OF THE GENUS CHEAENOBIA BLANCHARD
(COEPORTERA: SCARABAEIDAE):
By EDWARD A. CHAPIN
Curator, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum
The tribe Rhizotrogini of the scarabaeid subfamily Melolonthinae
is represented in the New World by about 450 known species, dis-
tributed among what are usually considered as five genera. Somewhat
more than three-fourths of these species are assigned to Phyllophaga
Harris (Lachnosterna Hope). One species is the sole member of the
genus Chirodines Bates. Listrochelus Blanchard and Phytalus Erich-
son together number about 100 species. Chlaenobia Blanchard, as
defined in the present paper, contains 15 named forms, of which 2
are given but subspecific rank.
In describing Chlaenobia, Blanchard allied it to certain genera
which are grouped about Macrodactylus Latreille. Lacordaire fol-
lowed Blanchard’s suggestion in this matter. Bates, the first to have
an adequate series of specimens for study, recognized the genus as
Rhizotrogine and not Macrodactyline and so treated it in the Biologia
Centrali-Americana. Dalla Torre returned to the views of Blanchard
and Lacordaire in the Junk Catalog, but there is ample evidence to
show that this work is not at all critical. The present treatment of
the genus follows Bates.
Arrow, in 1920, suggested that the American genus Phytalus
Erichson and the Asiatic genera Brahmina Blanchard and Holotrichia
Hope should be abandoned and their species placed in Lachnosterna
Hope (Phyllophaga Harris). If this is necessary, it is also necessary
to add those species now contained in Chlaenobia, for that genus is
certainly intimately connected with Phytalus. Chirodines is also very
close to Phytalus, and when its female is known, it may seem best to
add this gents to Phyllophaga also. On the other hand, a study of
the Rhizotrogini may show that an entirely new grouping of the
* This is the second contribution to be published by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion under the Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 9
2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
species along lines other than those at present used will result in more
clean-cut genera. There is a greater diversity of structure displayed
among the species of Phyllophaga than between those of Phytalus and
Chlaenobia.
Pending a reinvestigation of the whole complex, the five genera
of Rhizotrogini known to occur in the New World may be separated
as follows:
1S
to
Claws of front and middle legs simple, those of hind legs cleft
Chirodines Bates.
All tarsal claws toothed, cleft, pectinate or serrate..-:..2.:...-...4--9---5- 2,
Tatsaliiclaws. cletts 5c snsd csc oscrde com cio Ghteness leak sforello slovoy atesotep oie eeleweeerroretoere 3:
Marsal claws toothed, spectinate (orSerrateryearsrreicy-tetee ctor) -i-t-1rsi= eral ienereteeenere 4.
Prothorax somewhat narrowed at base; female pygidium usually profoundly
modified ; tarsi usually with dense pubescence on plantar surfaces
Chlaenobia Blanchard.
Prothorax wider across basal angles than across anterior angles; female
pygidium not modified; tarsi without dense pubescence on plantar surfaces
Phytalus Erichson.
Tarsal claws strongly bipectinate or feebly serrate, sometimes with a more
or less well developed subapical tooth on one or both of the claws of
ih els ue eh Oe nS RT Lac oi mermaid aoe ae Listrochelus Blanchard.
Tarsal claws neither pectinate nor serrate, with a more or less strongly
developed tooth which may be subbasal, median, or subapical in position
Phyllophaga Harris.
CHLAENOBIA Blanchard
Blanchard, 1850, Cat. Coll. Ent. Paris, Coleopt., vol. 1, p. 116; Lacordaire, 1856,
Gen. Coleopt., vol. 3, p. 265; Bates, 1888, Biol. Céntr.-Amer., Coleopt.,
vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 166; Arrow, 1933, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 10, vol. 11,
p. 146.
Type species——Chlaenobia ciliatipes Blanchard 1850 (monobasic ;
also by subsequent designation of Arrow 1933).
to
KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD 1850
MALES
Antenna, mime=Seomented: sever sia echo seis aie ecw ledehe tole bey steloketencieF adele) mete ie Retetens 2).
Attennasten=seo mented secs crcrs 2p creteicusie oer te tetenebaveieaNakel Acleret ok or oe teer Rerek ene 3:
Spurs of posterior tibia short, straight, and tapering......... aegrota Bates.
Spurs of posterior tibia somewhat spatulate and twisted, the spur more re-
mote from the insertion of tarsus ‘strongly hooked at apex...arrowt n. sp.
Metasternum sparsely set with bristles, the portion adjacent to the median
lineselabrous! or nearly, SO:)...)0s 21. 2 sate oer eet eee eee ee 4.
Metasternum moderately hairy to very densely pilose, with never more than
a small spot on median line glabrous; plantar surface of second segment of
anterior tarsus pilose; pronotum unicolorous........0.--6 ese nee eee 5.
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 3
4. Plantar surface of second segment of anterior tarsus bare, its margins fim-
briate with long hairs; pronotum bicolored (not always distinctly so in
greasy specimens), disk castaneous and flanks testaceous; body form un-
(EEGEVING DIROEVG! siOVe XANES pode anoaouuboooddersbnancenohacc panamana n. sp.
Plantar surface of second segment pilose; pronotum unicolorous; body form
mormealliistendets imtrmnc tea, .telsisrlnssta cae) a cieine cite Ssh seatatmecine vexata Horn.
5. Clypeus deeply concave, the anterior third or more strongly reflexed; second
segment of anterior tarsus about twice as long as broad..... latipes Bates.
Clypeus shallowly concave, only the marginal fifth reflexed; second segment
of anterior tarsus at least three times as long as wide.................. 6.
6. Hind tibia gradually but distinctly widened from base to apex; lower half
of inner face finely engraved and bounded beneath by a_ knife-edge
ANTAL AS eerepatebons A week patie terete i Shas ee RRA CHR Ciciae actrentcloty ce Smee ree eters he
Hind tibia not evenly expanded from base to apex; lower half of inner face
without fine engraving, not bounded beneath by a knife-edge margin... .8.
7. Outer apical angle of middle tibia produced outward; inner acute margin
Obshindmtibiamstantimesneatbase seein aiieisiene colimana Arrow.
Outer apical angle of middle tibia not outwardly produced; inner margin
onhindstibiasacutesmn-"apicalahalironlycece sce eeee ee dissimilis n. sp.
8. Spurs of hind tibia dissimilar in shape, the inner broader than the outer and
EWS Le Clmeetaeeetep en re dey ee tate lier rs eee ace ans a, ees peter cts Mere aequata Bates.
SPULsrotmindettotaislendermrstraichta aticdesiinll ats sr sereiteeiete eeelscteeree iiss 9.
9g. Pronotum less densely punctured on disk than on flanks; fifth visible abdomi-
nal sternite without median patch of asperities.......... scabripyga Bates.
Pronotum less densely punctured on flanks than on disk; fifth visible sternite
with median patch of asperities from which long hairs arise
tumulosa Bates.
Note: The males of the following species are unknown to the writer: cilia-
tipes Blanchard, rodriguesi Bates, personata n. sp.
FEMALES
ify HeNiahdsannelhonboro-eVa saan Solneel coma mr erarreac Genre n SCE eo OC OO De CeIn Oo HOC oRICn 2:
Aritennamten=seomiented! we rea.remiackort ete chico ctioncioo a siete ioiainne oe sees Gy.
2. Pygidium with a deep, subconical excavation on apical half which is con-
nected with the basal margin by a broad and rather deep groove
arrow n. sp.
Pygidium without a deep, subconical excavation near apex.............. a
3. Pygidium with a median longitudinal groove; third and fourth segments
OsRCebal iS thay Gro ( bE le pees Aen arent ra, Cre, Sy or Min a en CR Ae cihatipes Bl.
Pygidium without a median longitudinal groove; fourth segment longer
tlvetrateytlatr UW eps econ taeysecesiaicre toner vere epee IH TC aie chnae eta akats leven abe, akortes 4.
4. Clypeus deeply concave, the anterior third strongly reflexed; lateral mar-
ginal bead of pronotum wider near anterior and posterior angles than
at middle; apical portion of pygidium with shallow, vaguely defined
GEPLeSSion y= wee ee cee ee EIS ie ee rodriguezi Bates.
Clypeus not deeply concave, anterior fifth reflexed; lateral marginal bead
of pronotum uniformly narrow throughout length; apical portion of pygi-
dium with deep, well-defined depression................... aegrota Bates.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
5. Apical margin of sixth visible abdominal sternite more or less produced at
middle, the projection usually seated in a broad and very shallow
EMALRMALIOM: \Saiq cere clo nie ee Mavatey ators here dnan) oroltaio Sota eal elope abel vara cewenaeee 6.
Apical margin of sixth sternite broadly, deeply and evenly emarginate, not
atrallsproducediionimedianylines: cesar eeer aio eerie oe tit.
6. Pygidium bicallose, the callosities separated more or less completely by a
median. Longitudinal \oroOvesc..120 ockeiec seine scrote oie deraeeieereeercrte Oe
Pyeidium: mot) bicallosecci<s.c acted cir aera cucieie ere Glee eeterorde ele ieee senate 8.
7. Callosities of pygidium well separated, the median longitudinal groove pass-
ing between them and very nearly attaining the basal margin
latipes Bates.
Callosities approximate, coalescing above, the median longitudinal groove
short, not passing completely between them............... dissimilis n. sp.
8. Pygidium with a single median callosity near base, the remaining portion
shallowly concave, floor of the concavity with a pronounced median groove
colimana Arrow.
Pygidium broadly, shallowly, and transversely excavate in apical half, the
floor Oh theexcayation not: eroovedsaaasttnacerrel ee aecn cree eeoeeore QO.
9. Pygidium subacutely angulate at apex, with a single low median callosity
on une upper margin of the subapical excavation; pronotum unicolorous
vexata Horn.
Pygidium broadly rounded at apex, without a callosity on the basal portion
above the excavation; pronotum bicolored as in the male sex......... 10.
10. Pronotum strongly narrowed basally, as wide across anterior angles as
across base; pygidium moderately coarsely and very sparsely punctured
panamana n. sp.
Pronotum not strongly narrowed basally, width across anterior angles much
less than across base; pygidium coarsely and rather densely punctured
personata n. sp.
II. Pygidium subapically with a large hemispherical cavity which is bounded
laterobasally by two low and poorly defined callosities and apically by a
SharpepLrotmudineamancinee wecmeeeerterien ceeiee ee twmulosa Bates.
Pygidium virtually simple, without modification other than a shallow and
inconspicuous median impression near apexX.............. aequata Bates.
Note: The female of ciliatipes Blanchard is known to the writer only by
description. The female of scabripyga Bates is unknown to him.
DESCRIPTION ‘OF SPECIES
CHLAENOBIA CILIATIPES Blanchard
Chlaenobia ciliatipes Blanchard, 1850, Cat. Coll. Ent. Paris Coleopt., vol. 1,
p. 116; Lacordaire, 1856, Gen. Coleopt., vol. 3, p. 266.
Head black, punctate, clypeus rufotestaceous, margin reflexed and
feebly emarginate. Body entirely testaceous, upper parts glabrous
and somewhat shining, underparts sericeous. Antenna nine-segmented,
with the third and fourth segments elongate and equal. Pronotum
transverse, widest anteriorly, sides obtusely angulate, uniformly and
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 5
densely punctured. Elytra with discal costae hardly perceptible.
Propygidium very large and only partly covered by elytra, pygidium
moderately convex, with a median longitudinal groove (female?).
Anterior tibia obtusely bidentate.
Length—13 to 14 mm.
Type locality—Not stated in original description; by Lacordaire
as Brazil.
Type.—tIn the Paris Museum.
This species is known to me only from the descriptions of Blanchard
and Lacordaire. The above diagnosis is made up from the statements
of these authors. Following Lacordaire’s suggestion that the speci-
mens available to him are females, the species has been inserted in
that part of my key.
CHLAENOBIA AEGROTA Bates
Chlaenobia aegrota Bates, 1888, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 167,
Pl tOs tien Te
Head moderately coarsely and most densely punctured on upper
portion of frons, vertex and lower portion of frons sparsely punc-
tured, frons slightly concave, clypeofrontal suture moderately im-
pressed and bisinuate, clypeus more coarsely and sparsely punctured,
deeply concave, the outer third strongly reflexed, margin feebly
sinuate at middle. Antenna nine-segmented. Pronotum transverse,
side margins obtusely angulate just before the middle, lateral margin
feebly sinuate near posterior angle as viewed from side, viewed from
above anterior and posterior angles narrowly rounded; punctures
coarse, very sparsely placed on disk, more densely on flanks. Scutellum
equilateral, side margins curved, with a few punctures along sides.
Elytra with sutural margins broadly tumid, each with two faintly
indicated costae, the one nearer the suture a little better defined;
punctures a little less coarse but more densely placed than on pronotum,
epipleura narrow, disappearing before the extreme apex. Metasternum
moderately coarsely and most densely punctured, rather densely
clothed on median portion with moderately long erect hairs.
Male.—Antennal club one-fifth longer than second to sixth seg-
ments combined. Fifth sternite without special hair tuft, sixth sternite
with a shallow median longitudinal groove, its free margin transverse,
very feebly produced at middle. Pygidium strongly convex, coarsely,
sparsely and irregularly punctured, sparsely set with erect hairs,
transversely grooved just before apex, floor of this groove impunctate,
apical margin strongly reflexed. Anterior tibia bidentate with a trace
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 7
Fics. 1-12.—En face and lateral views of aedeagus.
. Chlaenobia aegrota Bates. Mexico? British Museum.
. Chlaenobia arrowi, n. sp. Venodio, Sinaloa, Mexico. Paratype.
. Chlaenobia latipes Bates. Cordoba, Vera Cruz, Mexico.
. Chlaenobia panamana, n. sp. Cano Saddle, Gatun Lake, Canal Zone. Type.
. Chlaenobia vexata (Horn). Brownsville, Texas.
. Chlaenobia unituberculata Bates. North Yucatan, Gaumer. ‘British Museum.
. Chlaenobia colimana Arr. Colima Volcano, Mexico.
. Chlaenobia dissimilis, n. sp. Venodio, Sinaloa, Mexico. Type.
. Chlaenobia aequata Bates. Costa Rica. British Museum.
10. Chlaenobia chiapensis, n. subsp. Chiapas, Mexico. Type.
11. Chlaenobia scabripyga Bates. Juquila, Mexico. British Museum.
12. Chlaenobia tumulosa Bates. Palin, Guatemala.
ON ANB W N
Ke)
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of a third tooth. Second segment of anterior tarsus narrow with
parallel sides, about four times as long as broad. Aedeagus, figure I.
Female.—Antennal club as long as second to sixth segments com-
bined. Sternites not modified, free margin of sixth rather strongly
produced. Pygidium somewhat as in male but with all characteristics
greatly accentuated, the punctures coarser and more densely placed,
the transverse groove enlarged and deepened and with apical margin
produced into a liplike structure. Anterior tibia tridentate with upper
tooth small.
Length—14 mm.
Type locality—Jalapa, Mexico (as here restricted).
Type.—tn the British Museum.
Material examined.—Three males and one female from Jalapa,
Mexico, Hoege, probably paratypes; one male and four females from
Cordoba, V. C., Mexico, F. Knab; one male from Mexico, D. F.,
J. R. Inda. Three of the Jalapa specimens were loaned for study by
the British Museum, the fourth was received some years ago as a
gift from the same source.
CHLAENOBIA RODRIGUEZI Bates
Chlaenobia rodriguezi Bates, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2,
supplement, p. 390.
Head very coarsely and closely punctured except just above the
impressed bisinuate clypeofrontal suture, outer or marginal third of
clypeus gradually reflexed, the central portion tumid, the anterior
margin broadly and shallowly notched at middle. Antennae nine-
segmented. Pronotum transversely oblong, side margins obtusely
angulate before the middle, lateral margin strongly bisinuate as
viewed from side, viewed from above the anterior and posterior
angles are obtuse and rounded ; punctures coarse, sparsely and irregu-
larly distributed. Scutellum equilateral, lateral margins curved, surface
with a few punctures near margins. Elytra with sutural margins tumid
to apices, where the extreme margins are sharply carinate, discal
costae not evident, punctures coarse and more densely placed than
on pronotum, epipleura very narrow and failing to reach sutural
angle. Metasternum coarsely and rather densely punctured at sides,
with a few scattered punctures in median portion.
Male—Unknown to the writer.
Female.—Antennal club as long as second to sixth segments com-
bined. Sternites not modified, finely punctured and sparsely set with
short hairs. Pygidium broadly triangular, convex basally from side
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 9
to side, apical portion flattened and set off from basal portion by two
very faintly indicated callosities. Anterior tibia tridentate with basal
tooth poorly developed. Anterior tarsus with slender, parallel-sided
segments.
Length—14 mm.
Type locality —Capetillo, Guatemala.
Type.—tIn the British Museum.
Material examined.—A female from the type locality, collected by
Rodriguez and apparently a paratype, loaned for study by the British
Museum.
CHLAENOBIA ARROWI, n. sp.
Head coarsely and moderately densely punctured on frons, vertex
virtually impunctate, clypeofrontal suture sharply impressed and bi-
sinuate, clypeus concave, the marginal fifth sharply reflexed, coarsely
and very sparsely punctured, margin feebly sinuate at middle. An-
tenna nine-segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margins obtusely
angulate just before the middle, lateral margin straight near posterior
angle as viewed from side, viewed from above anterior and posterior
angles obtuse, bluntly rounded, equal; punctures more coarse than
those of head, sparsely and irregularly placed. Scutellum with base
longer than a side, sides evenly curved, with a few scattered punctures.
Elytra with sutural margin broadly tumid and each with a single,
faintly indicated discal costa, punctures less coarse but more densely
placed than on pronotum, epipleura very narrow, terminating just
before extreme apex. Metasternum finely and densely punctured on
median area, coarsely and more sparsely punctured laterally, clothed
with rather short erect hairs. Sternites, especially first and second,
with short, fine bristlelike setae on median portion.
Male—Antennal club one-fourth longer than second to sixth seg-
ments combined, fourth segment much longer than third. Sixth
sternite with a median longitudinal depression, its free margin trans-
verse. Pygidium strongly and evenly convex, sparsely and moderately
coarsely punctured and sparsely hairy, the extreme apical margin
sharply reflexed and produced at middle. Anterior tibia bidentate.
Second segment of anterior tarsus narrow with parallel sides, about
four times as long as broad. Aedeagus, figure 2.
Female——Antennal club as long as second to sixth segments
combined. Sixth sternite without depression, its free margin moder-
ately strongly produced at middle. Pygidium very sparsely punctured,
with a deep, nearly hemispherical depression at middle, which is
connected with the basal margin by a deep groove, half as wide as the
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
pit itself. Apical margin strongly produced in an acute, reflexed lip.
Anterior tibia tridentate.
Length.—13 to 14.5 mm.
Type locality—V enodio, Sinaloa, Mexico.
Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 51041.
Material examined.—Type (male) and 35 paratypes of both sexes
collected at the type locality June 10-15, 1918, Kusche, donated to the
National Museum by B. P. Clark; one male paratype from Sinaloa,
Mexico, without further data.
In the 37 specimens before me, 3 show a partial division of the
fourth antennal Segment into two segments on one or both sides of the
insect. In no case is the division complete on both sides of the same
specimen and in the other specimens both antennae are without doubt
nine-segmented.
CHLAENOBIA LATIPES Bates
Chlaenobia latipes Bates, 1888, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 167.
Chlaenobia bicallosa Bates, 1888, loc. cit., p. 168.
Head rather densely and moderately coarsely punctured on frons,
region adjacent to the feebly impressed but strongly bisinuate clypeo-
frontal suture more sparsely punctured. Frons slightly convex. An-
tenna ten-segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margins obtusely
angulate well before the middle, lateral margin sinuate just before
posterior angle as viewed from side, viewed from above anterior
angles narrowly rounded, posterior angles acute and slightly produced ;
punctures a little coarser than those of head, rather sparsely and ir-
regularly distributed. Scutellum equilateral, sides curved, with a few
scattered punctures. Elytra with sutural margins strongly tumid,
discal costae feebly indicated; punctures finer and more densely
placed than on pronotum, epipleura very narrow, obsolete toward
apex. Metasternum moderately coarsely and densely punctured, vesti-
ture moderately long and suberect.
Male.—Clypeus deeply concave, rather coarsely and densely punc-
tured, subtrapezoidal, anterior margin feebly emarginate. Antennal
club half again as long as second to seventh segments combined. Sixth
sternite broadly and shallowly impressed, its free margin broadly
rounded and slightly produced. Pygidium transverse, slightly convex,
median area slightly impressed, apex transverse, slightly lipped. An-
terior tibia slender, bidentate, second segment of anterior tarsus
broadly oval, less than twice as long as wide. Aedeagus, figure 3.
Female—Clypeus feebly concave, coarsely, densely and somewhat
confluently punctured, biarcuate with median indentation shallow.
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 1
Antennal club a little shorter than second to seventh segments com-
bined. Sixth sternite with its free margin rather strongly produced
in a broad lobe. Pygidium transverse, median line sharply impressed,
with a conical boss on either side of median line at middle of length,
apical third shallowly excavate, apical margin subtransverse and
sharply reflexed. Anterior tibia tridentate.
Length.—13.5 to 15 mm. ji
Type locality—Teapa, Mexico (latipes) ; Tomatlan and Tuxtla,
Mexico (bicallosa).
Types.—In the British Museum.
Material examined—Two males from Cordoba, determined as this
species by Arrow but previously determined by Bates as aegrota; one
female, apparently a paratype of bicallosa, from Tomatlan; seven
males and nine females from Cordoba, V. C., Mex., May 12-June 9,
Fred. Knab; one male and one female from Chiapas, Mexico, in
collection of L. W. Saylor.
Two males and a female were taken by Knab on May 12 and
again on May 16. It seems unlikely that these sexes are not of the
same species. The males compare favorably with the two specimens
determined by Arrow, and one of the females has been compared by
Arrow with the type of bicallosa. The original description of the
female of latipes is not materially different from that of bicallosa.
CHLAENOBIA PANAMANA, n. sp.
Head densely and moderately coarsely punctured on frons, vertex
and region adjacent to clypeofrontal suture, which is deeply impressed
and strongly biarcuate, very sparsely punctured. Frons evenly and
slightly convex. Clypeus shallowly concave, its outer portion not
sharply reflexed, margin distinctly indented at middle. Antenna ten-
segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margin obtusely angulate just
before the middle, lateral margin strongly sinuate just before the
posterior angle as viewed from the side, viewed from above anterior
angle subacute, posterior angle acute and slightly produced ; punctures
coarse, densely placed on disk, more sparsely so on flanks. Scutellum
equilateral, rather sparsely punctured. Elytra with sutural margins
narrowly tumid, each with two feebly indicated discal costae, of
which the first (from suture) is more developed than the second ;
punctures as coarse and a little more densely placed than on disk
of pronotum, epipleura very narrow, not well defined beyond middle
of the length. Metasternum moderately coarsely and very sparsely
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
punctured, the median area puncture-free ; vestiture moderately long
but sparse.
Male——Antennal club about one-fifth longer than second to seventh
segments combined. Abdominal sternites not noticeably modified,
sixth with the free margin slightly produced at middle. Pygidium
moderately strongly convex in basal half, which is rather coarsely
but not densely punctured, apical half less convex, shining, nearly
puncture-free, the extreme apex not strongly reflexed. Anterior
tibia long and slender, bidentate with a feeble indication of a third
tooth, second segment of anterior tarsus narrow, about four times
as long as wide. Aedeagus, figure 4.
Female—Antennal club as long as second to seventh segments
combined. Abdominal sternites convex, not modified, the sixth with
its free margin produced at middle in a small triangular process.
Pygidium with a moderately deep, transversely oval depression cover-
ing almost the entire apical three-fifths, the apical margin slightly
produced, basal portion sparsely and moderately coarsely punctured.
Anterior tibia short and broad, distinctly tridentate.
Length.—13.5 to 15 mm.
Type locality—Cano Saddle, Gatun Lake, Canal Zone.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 51042.
Material examined—Type (male) and three paratypes (males
and females) from the above locality, collected May 8-12, 1923, R. C.
Shannon; one paratype (female) from Barro Colorado Island,
Panama, June 25, 1933, J. D. Hood.
This broad species, when fresh and without grease, has a very
distinctive appearance due to the bicolored pronotum. In greasy
specimens the disk of the pronotum appears nearly black, while the
flanks and elytra are moderately dark brown.
CHLAENOBIA PERSONATA, n. sp.
Head coarsely and densely punctured except on vertex, clypeo-
frontal suture deeply impressed, bisinuate, frons with a short median
impressed groove extending backward a short distance from the
clypeofrontal suture, outer third of clypeus gradually reflexed, an-
terior margin broadly and shallowly emarginate at middle. Antenna
ten-segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margin obtusely angulate
just before the middle, lateral margin feebly sinuate near posterior
angle as viewed from side, viewed from above the anterior angles
are obtuse and rounded, the posterior angles subacute, surface mod-
erately coarsely and rather irregularly punctured. Scutellum equi-
lateral, side margin curved, surface sparsely and rather coarsely
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 13
punctured. Elytra with sutural margins tumid to apices, discal
costae not evident, punctation similar to that of pronotum, epipleurae
very narrow but complete. Metasternum coarsely punctured, very
densely at sides and less densely at middle.
Male.—Unknown to the writer.
Female—Antennal club as long as the second to seventh segments
combined. Sternites moderately coarsely and densely punctured,
sparsely hairy. Sixth sternite very coarsely punctured. Pygidium
broad, not angulate, convex basally from side to side; apical portion
with a shallow excavation, the floor of which is virtually devoid of
punctures, rest of surface coarsely and rather densely punctured.
Anterior tibia tridentate, basal tooth well defined. Anterior tarsus
with slender, parallel-sided segments.
Length—15.5 mm.
Type locality —Mexico.
Type.—In the British Museum.
Material examined.—A single specimen, number 21975, from the
Frye Collection. The specimen bears the pin label “ Liogenys per-
sonata Reiche—Mexico ”.
CHLAENOBIA VEXATA (Horn)
Phytalus vexatus Horn, 1885, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., vol. 12, p. 120.
Phytalus cavifrons Linell, 1896, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 18, p. 720.
Head moderately coarsely and densely punctured on frons. Clypeo-
frontal suture deeply impressed, biarcuate. Clypeus coarsely but
less distinctly punctured than frons, very slightly elevated at middle,
the outer third abruptly reflexed, anterior margin feebly indented.
Antenna ten-segmented. Pronotum transverse, broadest across middle,
side margins very broadly angulate, lateral marginal carina slightly
sinuate near posterior angle as viewed from side, viewed from above
anterior and posterior angles subacute; punctures slightly less coarse
and much less densely placed than those on frons, irregularly dis-
tributed. Elytra with sutural margins tumid, discal costae faintly
indicated ; punctures slightly finer but about as densely placed as
those on pronotum; epipleura narrow. Metasternum polished and
sparsely punctured at middle, coarsely and more densely punctured
at sides, vestiture short and sparse.
Male—Antennal club a little longer than second to seventh seg-
ments combined. Second to fifth sternites polished at middle with a
very few scattered punctures. Sixth sternite feebly depressed at
middle. Pygidium convex, moderately coarsely and very sparsely
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
punctured, apex rounded and lipped. Anterior tibia with three teeth,
the upper not strongly developed. Second segment of anterior tarsus
elongate with parallel sides, about four times as long as wide. Aedea-
gus, figure 5.
Female——Antennal club a little shorter than second to seventh
segments combined. First to fifth sternites unmodified, sixth sternite
convex, with a broad shallow emargination behind. Pygidium strongly
convex in basal half, shallowly and transversely excavated apically,
with a single, low, median callosity. Anterior tibia strongly tridentate.
Second segment of anterior tarsus elongate, parallel-sided, about three
times as long as wide.
Length.—11 to 13.8 mm.
Type locality —Texas.
Types.—In the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (vexatus
Horn) ; in the United States National Museum, no. 574 (cavifrons
Linell).
Material examined—One female from Texas in the Philadelphia
Academy (type of vexatus Horn) ; two males and one female from
Brownsville, Tex., May 24-June 11, C. H. T. Townsend (type and
paratypes of cavifrons Linell) ; five males and one female from same
locality, May 15-Aug. 17, C. Schaeffer (Brooklyn Museum Collection,
U.S.Nat.Mus.); one male from Texas, Fry Collection 1905-100
(British Museum).
This species is unusual in the genus in having a moderately well
defined third tooth on the anterior tibia of the male.
CHLAENOBIA VEXATA subsp. UNITUBERCULATA Bates
Chlaenobia unituberculata Bates, 1889, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2.
supplement, p. 390.
Very similar to the typical form of the species. The punctation of
the head and pronotum is a little coarser in unituberculata than in
cavifrons. The aedeagus offers the only sure means of identification.
In the present subspecies (fig. 6) the apical portion of the organ
narrows sharply from a point at about the level of the terminus of
the median fissure.
Type locality——Temax, N. Yucatan (Gaumer).
Type.—tn the British Museum.
Material examined—A pair, probably paratypes, from the type
locality, loaned for study by the British Museum and a pair from
Rin Antonio, Oaxaca, Mexico, F. Knab, collector.
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 15
CHLAENOBIA COLIMANA Arrow
Chlaenobia colimana Arrow, 1933, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, vol. 11, p. 145.
Head rather sparsely and moderately densely punctured on frons,
median line, vertex and along the lightly impressed and feebly sinuate
clypeofrontal suture almost free of punctures. Frons almost plane.
Clypeus not concave, its outer margin. slightly reflexed and very
feebly indented at middle. Antenna ten-segmented. Pronotum trans-
verse, side margins very obtusely angulate before the middle, lateral
margin strongly sinuate just before the posterior angle as viewed
from side, viewed from above anterior and posterior angles acute;
punctures coarse and rather sparse on disk, finer and sparser on
flanks. Scutellum equilateral, with a few coarse punctures along side.
Elytra with sutural margin broadly tumid at middle of length, nar-
rowed basally and apically, discal costae almost completely effaced ;
punctures a little finer and as densely placed as those on pronotal disk,
epipleura very narrow, disappearing just before the extreme apex.
Metasternum very finely and densely punctured on median portion,
more coarsely and sparsely at sides, vestiture short and erect, absent
from a minute spot at center.
Male—Antennal club half again as long as second to seventh
segments combined. Abdominal sternites short and crowded along
median line, sixth sternite as long, along median line, as fourth and
fifth combined, its median portion flattened and with a poorly defined
longitudinal groove. Pygidium strongly convex, apical half sparsely
hairy, apical margins transverse and slightly lipped. Anterior tibia
slender, bidentate with a trace of a third tooth, second segment of
anterior tarsus elongate oval, about three times as long as wide.
Aedeagus, figure 7.
Female.—Antennal club very slightly longer than second to seventh
segments combined. Abdominal sternites somewhat flattened along
median line but not concave, sixth sternite long, with its free margin
bisinuate. Pygidium with a single well-developed median tubercle
on basal half, apical two-thirds cut away and with a deep, narrow
median groove extending from below the tubercle toward apex.
Apical margin with two small processes which fit into the sinuations
at apex of sixth sternite; concave portion sparsely hairy. Anterior
tibia slender, tridentate.
Length.—13.5 to 16.5 mm.
Type locality—Colima, Mexico.
Type.—tIn the British Museum.
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 9O4
Material examined—Six males and three females from Colima
Volcano, Jalisco, L. Conradt. Specimens from this lot have been
compared with the type by Arrow.
CHLAENOBIA DISSIMILIS, n. sp.
Head moderately coarsely and densely punctured near eyes, rest
of frons, vertex and clypeus sparsely punctured. Clypeofrontal
suture feebly impressed and biarcuate. Clypeus flat with outer fourth
gradually reflexed, its anterior margin feebly and broadly indented.
Antenna ten-segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margins obtusely
angulate well before the middle, lateral marginal carina weakly
sinuate just before the posterior angle as viewed from the side,
viewed from above anterior and posterior angles acute, not produced ;
punctures a little more coarse than those of head, sparsely placed
on disk, very sparsely on flanks. Elytra with sutural margins strongly
tumid, discal costae obsolete ; punctures almost as coarse as those on
pronotum and a little more densely placed; epipleura very narrow,
obsolete toward apex. Metasternum coarsely and densely punctured
at sides, very finely and very densely at middle except for the small
median area, which is puncture-free; vestiture sparse at sides, very
dense at middle.
Male.—Antennal club about one-third longer than second to seventh
segments combined. Abdominal sternites each with a median patch
of short, fine and dense hairs, sixth with a shallow median longitudinal
impression, its free margin transverse, not noticeably produced.
Pygidium strongly convex, rather sparsely punctured, apex sub-
transverse and slightly lipped. Anterior tibia moderately stout, bi-
dentate. Second segment of anterior tarsus oval, about two and one-
half times as long as wide. Aedeagus, figure 8.
Female——Antennal club a little shorter than second to seventh
segments combined. First and fifth abdominal sternites convex, not
modified, sixth sternite with a broad and rather deep pit on either
side of the median line, its free margin strongly tumid and sinuous.
Pygidium with a pair of strong, conical bosses on basal half which
are confluent basally, apical half excavate, apex transverse. Punctures
sparse on basal half, almost wanting on apical half. Anterior tibia
short, distinctly tridentate.
Length.—14.5 to 16 mm.
Type locality—Venodio, Sinaloa, Mexico.
Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 51043.
NO. 9 GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 17
Material examined.—Type (male) and three paratypes (males
and females) from above locality, collected from June 10-July 30,
Kusche.
The extremities of this species are unusually pilose in the male,
the posterior femora at base and posterior tibia at apex bear dense
brushes of long hair on their inner margins. All tarsi are also ex-
ceedingly pilose.
CHLAENOBIA AEQUATA Bates
Chlaenobia aequata Bates, 1888, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 168.
Head coarsely punctured, densely so on vertex and upper portion
of frons, moderately densely so on clypeus and very sparsely so on
lower part of frons in the region of the clypeofrontal suture which is
strongly impressed and bisinuate; clypeus with marginal fourth re-
flexed, the central portion nearly flat, the margin slightly notched at
middle. Antenna ten-segmented. Pronotum transverse, side margins
strongly angulate at middle, lateral margin strongly sinuate near pos-
terior angle as viewed from side, viewed from above, the anterior
angles are obtuse and rounded, basal angles prominent and subacute ;
punctures coarse, more sparsely placed on disk than on flanks where
their density is similar to those on clypeus. Scutellum equilateral, the
side margin curved, surface sparsely and rather finely punctured near
margins. Elytra with sutural margins broadly tumid except at apex
where the extreme margins are sharply carinate, discal costae not
evident, punctures less coarse but as densely placed as on flanks of
pronotum, epipleura very narrow. Metasternum moderately coarsely
and very densely punctured at sides, a little more sparsely so in median
portion.
Male.—Antennal club almost as long as all the remaining segments
combined. Fifth sternite with a sparse patch of hair at middle, arising
from a patch of asperities, sixth sternite tumid with a central de-
pression ‘surrounded by a few very coarse punctures or pits, free
margin with a broad and not very prominent process. Pygidium
uniformly and strongly convex, coarsely and sparsely punctured, a
little more densely so toward base ; apical margin sharply and narrowly
reflexed. Anterior tibia bidentate with a faint indication of a third
tooth. Second segment of anterior tarsus narrow with parallel sides,
about four times as long as broad. Aedeagus, figure 9.
Female—Antennal club as long as second to seventh segments
combined. Sternites not noticeably modified. Pygidium elongate
triangular, basal half evenly convex from side to side, apically
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
flattened with indications of two broad callosities just above the
flattened portion. Anterior tibia tridentate.
Length.—12 mm.
Type locality—Chontales, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
Type.—In the British Museum.
Material examined.—A pair (of which the female is probably a
paratype) from Costa Rica, loaned for study by the British Museum ;
one female from Tuis, C. R., 2,400 feet, C. H. Lankester.
CHLAENOBIA AEQUATA subsp. CHIAPENSIS, n. subsp.
Similar in most respects to the typical subspecies but differing
in the slightly coarser punctures of the head and pronotum and in the
conformation of the aedeagus. The lateral appendages of the aedeagus
in the typical subspecies are short and extend about half-way from
their insertion to the apex of the conjoined lateral lobes. In the
subspecies chiapensis (fig. 10) these appendages are considerably
longer, almost reaching the level of the apex of the lobes.
Type locality.—Chiapas, Mexico.
Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 51044.
Material examined.—Type (male), three paratypes (males) and
two paratypes (females) from the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras,
altitude 800 to 1000 meters, state of Chiapas, L. Hotzen, 1919.
CHLAENOBIA SCABRIPYGA Bates
Chlaenobia scabripyga Bates, 1888, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2,
p. 167.
Head coarsely punctured, moderately densely so on clypeus and
frons, sparsely so on median portion of vertex, clypeofrontal suture
deeply impressed and strongly biarcuate, with the median cusp
prolonged a short distance onto the frons as a median impressed line,
clypeus with margin more or less following the curvature of the
clypeofrontal suture, feebly reflexed, central portion nearly flat.
Antenna ten-segmented. Pronotum transversely oblong, sides obtusely
angulate at middle, lateral margin nearly straight throughout its
length as viewed from side, viewed from above both anterior and
posterior angles are obtuse and rounded; punctures similar in size to
those on frons, moderately densely placed except along the lateral
margins and on median portion of disk, where they are slightly
less dense. Scutellum equilateral with side margins curved, surface
moderately coarsely and densely punctured. Elytra with sutural
margins broadly and strongly tumid, discal costae not well defined,
NO. Q GENUS CHLAENOBIA BLANCHARD—CHAPIN 19
punctures about as coarse and as densely placed as on disk of pro-
notum, epipleura very narrow. Metasternum moderately coarsely
and rather evenly punctured, median portion set with rather long
erect hairs.
Male.—Second to fourth sternites each with a dense median patch
of short erect hairs, fifth sternite with surface generally uneven but
without asperities or hair patch at middle. Sixth sternite with median
area slightly depressed, its posterior margin not noticeably sinuate.
Pygidium strongly convex in its upper (basal) half, which is coarsely
and densely punctured, the lower half is more flattened, coarsely
wrinkled and convoluted, apical margin sharply and narrowly reflexed.
Anterior tibia feebly tridentate, the upper tooth at some distance from
the middle tooth. Second segment of anterior tarsus narrow with
parallel sides, about four times as long as broad. Aedeagus, figure IT.
Female-——Unknown to the writer.
Length.—12 mm.
Type locality—Juquila, Mexico.
Type.—lIn the British Museum.
Material examined.—A male, probably a paratype, from the type
locality, loaned for study by the British Museum. Unfortunately,
both of the antennal clubs are missing.
CHLAENOBIA TUMULOSA Bates
Chlaenobia tumulosa Bates, 1888, Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt., vol. 2, pt. 2,
p. 168.
Head rather densely and moderately coarsely punctured except
for a small area on vertex which is free of punctures. Clypeofrontal
suture moderately sharply impressed and not strongly sinuate. Clypeus
evenly, densely, and moderately coarsely punctured, slightly convex
at middle, and with outer third gradually reflexed, anterior margin
moderately strongly indented at middle. Antenna ten-segmented.
Pronotum transverse, broadest across middle, side margins broadly
rounded, lateral marginal carina rather strongly sinuate near posterior
angle as viewed from side, viewed from above anterior and posterior
angles subacute, the latter slightly produced ; punctures as coarse but
less dense than those on frons, irregularly distributed. Elytra with
sutural margins tumid, discal costae faintly indicated; punctures
about as dense and coarse as those on pronotum; epipleura very
narrow. Metasternum very finely and densely punctured at middle,
more coarsely and sparsely at sides, vestiture fine and dense at middle.
Male—Antennal club one-fifth longer than second to seventh seg-
ments combined. Second to fourth abdominal sternites each with a
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
median patch of fine, short hair. Fifth sternite with a transverse
patch of asperities along the posterior margin from which arise mod-
erately long, fine hair. Sixth sternite with a median longitudinal
groove. Pygidium convex, coarsely and rather densely punctured on
basal half, very sparsely punctured on apical half, apex subtransverse
and slightly lipped. Anterior tibia slender, bidentate, second segment
of anterior tarsus elongate oval, about three times as long as wide.
Aedeagus, figure 12.
Female.—Antennal club a little shorter than second to seventh
segments combined. First to fifth sternites unmodified, sixth sternite
with a broad semicircular emargination on free margin. Pygidium
conical with apex replaced by a deep hemispherical cavity bounded
at sides by blunt crests, below by an acute and somewhat produced
margin. Anterior tibia stout, tridentate.
Length—14 to 15 mm.
Type localities —British Honduras, R. Sarstoon; Guatemala, near
city, Duenas, Capitillo.
Type.—tIn the British Museum.
Material examined.—Two specimens, male and female, from Gua-
temala (Sallé), apparently paratypes, loaned for study by the British
Museum; three males and four females from Palin, Guatemala,
May 1924, W. M. Mann; three males and one female from Teguci-
galpa, Honduras, May—June, 1917, F. J. Dyer; one male from Finca
Gibraltar, Mexico, September 1910, in collection of L. W. Saylor.
In the Honduras specimens noted above, the aedeagus differs from
the Guatemala type in that the triangular tooth at the middle of the
outer margin of each lateral lobe is somewhat accentuated. A separate
name for each race does not seem necessary.
I also refer to this species a single female from Cacos, Trece
Aguas, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala. The specimen is evidently ab-
normal, as the head is very asymmetrical, the clypeus projecting
forward nearly twice as far on the right side of the head as on the
left. The pygidial characters are like those of the other female speci-
mens but are less accentuated.
=
nines
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS *GOLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 10
Roebling Fund
SOLAR RADIATION AND
Ve lal ie Sl WDE S
(WitTH THREE PLATES)
BY
GC. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3339)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 15, 1935
The Lord Wattimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
ee 2
CONTENTS
PAGE
Tier od uctlOnimeeiree ieee ele ioe ales SoA a Se plolata COMA ere orale Rejects wieieiels I
[ee Solar radiationmmeastnementSsn 10-2 secre ine cic wie nic ciel ucre ociiels clerieeieys sista 3
Ie Obyectsmancdestationsmaer.tae wets ccc eien on tl ciere lh ees eee ae ce 3
25) UNStiMmentsmandemnethod Saya ajc ces cvetee's wie tercvons, ove elecseve sie eels reretas sveoue 3
Be bhenvatiation Otethessuts radiatiOfiess ete ece ce elie siecle etter ee 6
APP LeniodicitiesminesolatevatiatiOman aaa neieieiienielseceieeieiieie iaieiete 10
5. Analysis of the solar variation....... ER Ae ER ehnd 1 Se Pon II
Gy, SyaTMee wil Sollee Wemyss ooqccenscaacocuvcdohonscaccunanooe 14
FeO Tans enpredicHonsnolsOlatvaliationim-)eie eae 14
Tie Weather responsive to periodic solar changes... 5... . 4.0. .se4ee es see 15
SUE Sun=spote utluenCe smi si se criasecrte occ ae evae saison meetin 15
Ole Preparationvor weathermdatass smc eras sisilere cite saeco oletolsveroiersrers 17
10. Amplitudes of periodicities diminished by smoothing............. 18
TiTeree sD 1101S [) OL CATE me ay avege orate sfare tefe 1s PCO fa tedeseiareten etal cena: axt ar lecepe ois euetnoucrerees 19
125 COGLECHONSHOLSOlata Mell OUSmermracinen rit iene oremicinierericicieietereinrcracrar 21
13. Full lines required in the statistical tabulations.................. 21
14. Berlin, Germany. Departures from normal temperatures......... 22
A. Segregated with reference to sun-spot numbers............. 22
as hhesrr-monthiperiodicityan.cseieceeecaes seater eit 22
bathe S=monthepertodicityaennn- veer erence 26
Chex 7=monthe pertodiciivencre.aceeee saaeeeaseee acer 28
d. Dependence of phase on sun-spot activity............ 20
e. Dependence of phase on epoch counted from 1819..... 2
noe
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22
23.
24.
25.
20.
Summary
B. Analyses grouped in periods of 114 years and 23 years, based
on January 1819 as date of departure, and including
ell cheatin boats cee sicsarevoter-cyele heres et cyst onsicionedetacar suetsnouere a cher ons
hem iri Ont perl Odicitysrtiemelese aereicietele ieee eilals
Mher2r-monthy perlodicityac..a-see recta emeem cece e
Progressive removal of determined periodicities......
Criterion for true and false periodicities and limit to
the number OF pewlodicities: ee .tsamoeeeecle ce ae eee
C. Residuals after removal of evaluated periodicities..........
D. Analyses by intervals not integrally related to 23 years.....
Others analyses emcee eee eee eae ear be ec ee een ale
Conclusions derived from analyses of Berlin and other temperatures
andmprecipitatl ON Stepan cherocts a ence ee oes ee SE eee ene
aoop
Summary of preceding studies and their guidance toward those
NuhiclamtollOowitaa cattee eve eave cha) ask te cua te ee neeayctenadant teen o oepe avionics
A test of the 23-year hypothesis in the precipitation of southern
Newari lands vaso cues ti itary aa tis atv io,s Son tora ane ons Bleraalerolonsl etre
A lake level test of the 23-year hypothesis.............00.000000
Acfishery test of thes23-year hypothesis... .. 0.6 sie s.c0mse 40 ss 88s
A test of the 23-year hypothesis in the flow of the River Nile....
A test of the 23-year cycle in the widths of tree rings..........
A test of the 23-year cycle in Pleistocene varves................-
A test of the 23-year cycle in Eocene varves and tree rings.......
A weather testof the 2s-vearily pothesis... 15.5 6saciisine aie wees 2
(CATISCSME RE era cine wee Te Either ere oe isla cos a eyes canoe
38
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES
PAGE
Smithsonian solar radiation station, Montezuma, Chile................ 3
2) Whe periodometer: si. caters siske cyavete cw cveewee erotars wererelociei ail srousracovorelete oe wrote 2
Bolographs of theysolan energy, Spectutmieens ssc 2 a6 oer terrae tee 6
TEXT FIGURES
{, Diagram of silver-disk pyrieliometer i. aces ciclo) 2\ joie evel /oielleateyet yet) eralcuale 4
2. Diagram’ of water-flow pyriieliometer. 22. s.es sis es oe see ete eile oe 5
Bu Diaeram om spectnobolometetacmenriie crate acitr cles it rncir net tairre i
4. Solar-constant values, three stations, 1625-10304... =. some cim sien 8
nee Marchiotesolat variations 10201034 retttioeletriy tiie siot felt ies etree 9
6: ) Lhe er-month periodicityeinlsolatm vatiatione rere ticeier iit eee ieee II
7, Analysis and synthesis of solar variation, 1920-1934................-- 12
8) Predicted and observed) solar vaniatione see eee reece eens 15
9. Sun-spot numbers and phase changes. The 11-month periodicity in
temperature departures at Bismarck; N; Dak: .....2.....-.2scescees 16
TOM VVOLESun-sSpot ntmbeEsy TOlO=163S eam daiieeceeiciseicmieiree meee rte 20
11. Eleven-month periodicity in Berlin temperatures....................- 23
12. Eight-month periodicity in Berlin temperatures...................00- 27
13. Sun-spot numbers and phase changes. Eleven-month temperature
periodicity at Berlin for low, medium, and high sun-spot numbers... 30
14. Dependence of phase in periodicities of Berlin temperatures on epoch
Measured HOM HL GUO. coc wvsrcfors oiieyere s erase he aves rayerere sieiere eieha eter 2
15. The 23-year influence on periodicities of 93 and 12 months............. 34
16. The 11- and 21-month periodicities in Berlin temperatures............ 36
17. Details of the 11- and 21-month periodicities in Berlin temperatures.... 39
18. The 68-month periodicity in Berlin temperatures..................... 45
NO), IEC eolabe Chiaas als WEIMObE SEWOUG. pos ooddcnodoodnantoosouGnbeocnouse 47
20. Periodicities of 92 and 138 months, Berlin temperatures............... 50
21. Residuals after removing periodicities, Berlin temperatures............ 51
22: Trials of periodicities not related to:23 yeats....../-.-0-s222 20s enn 52
23. Cape Town periodicities in temperature departures.................00 53
24. Cycles in the precipitation of southern New England.................. 59
25. Levels of Wake Ontario, 23-year icycless coon ee eee eee «.. 60-61
26. avand b; Levels of Great Lakes; 23-year‘eycless.... 5.50: 6- 6400 vee 62, 63
27. Catch of mackerel and cod in the North Atlantic, 23-year cycles from
TOTS CO TOS Tes. .o ele cere oe aa ee eos ee 65
28. Low-level stages of the River Nile, showing 23-year periodicity, 735 to
L424, satid “L830; tOs TASH 3s had oc chi eres eee eee Oe ee eee 68
29. Cycles of 23 years in tree-ring widths. Average results of 115-year
IMEEM VAISS 4.orey aporars cial etwas cheleiarae ease eae Re ee 70
30.
Cycles of 23 years in tree-ring widths. Individual cycles of 23 years.... 72
1V
NO.
10 ILLUSTRATIONS V
PAGE
Cycles of 23 years in Pleistocene varves. Average results of I15-year
AA ATAIIG + bo GA SoA SOs an co eRO On eco sa oanenooeracmo condo pogbarags 74
Cycles disclosed in varves and tree-rings of Eocene age........-.... 76
The 23-year cycle in the precipitation of Peoria, Ill..........+.......- 78
The 23-year cycle in the temperature departures of New York City.... 79
Sample, forecasts: and: wWeriliCatvOns <6 oie oes 12 ose nein in « ors al cbeiinis = ea 8I
Eleven-year forecast for Bismarck, N. Dak., with verification. Fore-
CASES TICE 2S, Glin GIN 5 oo coccndocucueu das seougnnoocusaodD OO OnddNS 82
Eleven-year forecasts for Vienna, Austria, and North Platte, Nebr., with
VELificationss Monrecastsy made step) DyaSlepsicecrsiscicieieieie aereis eielalsleieteier 83
Comparison of stations with respect to phase-change of periodicities.... 85
—
gi
Ph ny
AL i
a
Ne tae
Roebling Fund
SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES
By C. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(With THREE PLATEs)
INTRODUCTION
Many years ago the late Secretary Langley expressed the hope that
the studies of the Astrophysical Observatory on the intensity of the
sun’s radiation would lead to long-range weather forecasting. His
hopes were encouraged when in 1903 our studies seemed to indicate
a considerable change in the sun’s output of radiation * associated with
a marked drop of temperature over the Northern Hemisphere. This,
which now seems to have been a chance coincidence, led to a cam-
paign of “solar constant’’ determination which is still in progress.
It has involved the establishment of observing stations at high alti-
tudes in 1o different localities, 5 in the United States, 2 in Chile, 1
each in South-West Africa, Algeria, and Egypt. Three of these
are now in occupation. Part of the expense of these observing sta-
tions was borne by the Government, but a considerable fraction was
defrayed by grants from Mr. John A. Roebling and from the Hodg-
kins Fund of the Smithsonian Institution. The National Geographic
Society also made a large grant which supported the establishment and
continuation of 5 years of the station in South-West Africa.
After an excellent series of nearly daily solar-constant observations
of 12 years length became available, analysis showed that what at first
sight seemed chance variations of the sun’s output really comprised
a summation of at least seven” regular periodicities. Although these
were of the order of only 1 percent or less, it seemed advisable to
see if they appeared to be associated with weather changes of signifi-
cance. A study of this question was made by the aid of the long-
term records of temperature and precipitation contained in “‘ World
Weather Records,” published recently by the Smithsonian Institution
with the assistance of Mr. John A. Roebling.
*See Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1903, pp. 81-84, 1904; and Astrophys. Journ.,
vol. 19, pp. 305-321, 1904.
* In the latest analysis, given below, covering the years 1920-1934, 12 periodici-
ties are found in solar variation.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 10
Ny
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Analysis of weather records appears to show that each of the various
solar periodicities above referred to influences both temperature and
precipitation to a significant degree. At least five (perhaps six) other
periodicities in weather elements, closely associated in length with
the original seven, are also significant. Inasmuch as all of these 12
or 13 periodicities are very nearly aliquot parts of 23 years, it follows
that their combined effect produces in the weather a large number of
features more or less pronounced during a period of 23 years. Suc-
ceeding intervals of 23 years tend to bring repetitions of these features.
For some of these periodicities, however, 46 years appears to be the
critical interval. Hence there is a somewhat closer correspondence
at some times and some stations between weather features 46 years
apart. Owing to certain modifying influences in the sun itself, to
which reference will be made below, and to the complexity of the
terrestrial agencies through which the solar influences act, these
repetitions of weather features are subject to moderate displacements
in time, and to modifications in amplitude. Actual reversals of phase,
as will be shown, sometimes occur after 23-year intervals. Never-
theless, special weather features remain recognizable in many in-
stances by comparison of successive 23-year curves.
Based on these grounds it becomes possible to make forecasts of
weather conditions for years in advance which appear to be sig-
nificantly more representative than normal values. The modifying
factors referred to above detract as yet greatly from the accuracy of
such forecasts, but further study may lead to greater perfection.
The following paper gives the evidences for these statements.
The evidence to be presented being extensive and complex, and
certain parts of it—as, for instance, the studies of periodicities in the
temperature of Berlin—being apt to prove tiresome to some and con-
troversial to others, it is suggested that high spots of the demonstra-
tion may be picked out as follows:
1. Turn to captions 3 and 4, pages 6 and 10, and note the results
expressed by figures 4, 6, 7, and 8.
2. Turn to captions 14-Ba, 14-Bb, and 15, pages 35, 38 and 53, and
note the results expressed by figures 15, 16, 17, 19, and 23.
3. Turn to captions 17 to 25, pages 56 to 75, and note at least a
part of the results expressed in figures 24 to 37, inclusive.
4. Finally, with these results in mind, read the Summary, pages 88
and 89.
In this way it is hoped that the reader will obtain briefly such a
view of the more remarkable parts of the investigation as will arouse
his curiosity to pursue the entire course of the demonstration.
*poyed0] ST UOT}E}S SUT
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VOL. 94, NO. 10, PL. 2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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THE PERIODOMETER, AN INSTRUMENT FOR DETECTING AND EVALUATING PERIODICITIES
IN LONG SERIES OF DATA
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 3
I. SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENTS‘
I. OBJECTS AND STATIONS
We measure at the earth’s surface the total intensity of solar radia-
tion, its spectral distribution, the losses its various rays meet in travers-
ing the atmosphere; and we compute its intensity and spectral dis-
tribution outside the atmosphere, and the variations of its intensity
from day to day as they occur in the sun itself before the rays enter
the atmosphere. At present, the Smithsonian Institution carries on
these measurements at three high-altitude desert stations chosen for
their cloudlessness and other favorable conditions. They are Table
Mountain, Calif.; Montezuma, Chile; and Mount St. Katherine,
Egypt. Their respective altitudes are 7,500, 9,000, and 8,500 feet,
approximately. Other Smithsonian stations formerly occupied have
included Washington, D. C.; Hump Mountain, N. C.; Mount Wilson
and Mount Whitney, Calif.; Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz.; Bassour,
Algeria; and Mount Brukkaros, South-West Africa. Plate 1 shows
the station at Mount Montezuma. Besides these terrestrial stations,
a self-recording instrument for measuring total solar radiation was
raised by sounding balloons from Omaha, Nebr., July 1914, to a
level of over 15 miles. It made good records of the intensity of solar
radiation at that high level where only 1/25 of the atmospheric pres-
sure remained above. The mean value of the solar constant of radia-
tion as computed from mountain stations is 1.94 calories per square
centimeter per minute. Balloon pyrheliometry indicated 1.84 calories
at 15 miles elevation. Correction of balloon pyrheliometry for loss
in the highest atmosphere gives 1.88 calories, which agrees with moun-
tain solar-constant results within the experimental error of the balloon
observations.
2. INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS
For measuring total solar radiation at the earth’s mountain surface
we have hitherto depended * on the silver-disk pyrheliometer and the
water-flow pyrheliometer. The former is a secondary instrument
whose readings are converted into absolute units (calories per square
centimeter per minute) by comparisons with the water-flow pyr-
heliometer.’ These instruments are shown diagrammatically in figures
* This section is for the most part abbreviated from vols. 1-5, Annals of the
Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution.
*We are now (1935) introducing the Angstrom electrical compensation pyr-
heliometer as a cooperating instrument.
°See improved water-flow pyrheliometer as described in Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., vol. 87, no. 15, 1932, and vol. 92, no. 13, 1934.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fic. 1.—-Diagram of silver-disk pyrheliometer.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—-ABBOT 5
I and 2. Their sources of error, corrections to their direct readings,
and other details regarding them are published in volumes 2, 4, and 5
of the Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and in
papers nos. 3182 and 3288 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions. Intercomparisons of silver-disk pyrheliometers made at inter-
vals over a period of about 20 years indicate that the scale of ob-
serving has not changed appreciably. These intercomparisons are
Soccecedcstcsdes;
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Fic. 2.—Diagram of water-flow pyrheliometer.
Solar rays are mainly absorbed on the cone in A, but some are scattered about
the walls of AA. Their heat is given up to water which flows in a spiral channel
about the cone and tube AA. The rise of temperature of the water due to solar
heating is measured by the electrical thermometer D:D2. Test quantities of
electrical heat introduced at G or H may be measured as a check.
published extensively in the Annals, volume 4, pages 94-97, and vol-
ume 5, pages 139-145. Table 1 gives one typical example.
TABLE 1.—Long-continued Series of eee eS of Pyrhehometers
Sak Ti qith A EXO). Shis
Mean stactadeous IQII IQII IgI2 1913 1915 1916 @ 1917 1917 1920
Ratio: chssneee 1.0357 1.0246 1.0268 1.0324 1.0343 1.0119 1.0360 1.0330 1.0352
*Tt is believed that owing to maladjustment S.I. 1 was not properly exposed on this
occasion.
The distribution of energy in the solar spectrum before it enters
the atmosphere approximates roughly that of the perfect radiator at
6,000° K. Hence, nearly all of its energy is contained between wave
lengths 0.3 and 3.0 microns. Rays beyond 0.3 micron in the ultraviolet
are almost wholly cut off by ozone in the higher atmosphere, and those
beyond 3.0 microns in the infrared by water vapor in the lower at-
mosphere. Between these limits not only these and other atmospheric
vapors, but also dust and even the permanent gaseous molecules of
the air, absorb or scatter the sun’s rays both selectively and generally,
so that the solar beam is both changed in spectral distribution and
generally weakened during its passage through the atmosphere. In
order to evaluate these losses, energy spectral measurements are re-
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
quired. These are made at our stations several times on each obsery-
ing day by means of the spectrobolometer. This instrument, shown
diagrammatically in figure 3, is explained in the Annals. Plate 3
shows a group of successive solar spectrobolometric observations made
at Montezuma, Chile, July 7, 1924. The relative losses of radiation
suffered at different wave lengths in transmission through the spec-
trobolometer are measured and allowed for as described in the Annals,
volume 2, pages 50-52, and volume 3, pages 27-20.
Knowing the sun’s altitude, and thereby the length of path of the
sun rays in the atmosphere compared to the length of a vertical path
therein, taken as unity, these several curves may fix the atmospheric
transmission coefficients at all wave lengths. Thereby the spectral
energy curves can be reduced in form and height to what they would
have been if observed outside the atmosphere. This reduction is ex-
plained in the Annals, volume 2, page 56, and volume 3, page 28. The
total area included under such a spectral energy curve is proportional
to the total energy of the solar beam as it would be observed with the
pyrheliometer. Hence, the ratio of areas included under two spectral
energy curves, one computed as of outside the atmosphere, and the
other observed as at the earth’s surface, is the factor by which the
pyrheliometer measurement is to be multiplied to yield the intensity
of the sun’s radiant energy outside the atmosphere. Including also,
as a factor, the square of the ratio of the earth’s actual solar dis-
tance to its mean value, we arrive at the “‘ solar constant of radiation.”
In the year 1919 it was discovered that a mere measurement of
the brightness of the sky surrounding the sun could be made to yield
closely enough the coefficients of atmospheric transmission at all wave
lengths. This measurement is made with the instrument called the
pyranometer. It thus becomes possible to make five solar-constant
determinations in one morning and reduce them within the time
formerly occupied with one determination. The method as now de-
veloped is explained in the Annals, volume 5, pages I10-120.
3. THE VARIATION OF THE SUN’S RADIATION
Figure 4 shows superposed in the form of 10-day means the
solar-constant results obtained at Montezuma, Table Mountain, and
Mount Brukkaros from 1925 to 1930. The order of excellence of
the stations is the order just given. This is indeed plain from the
relative smoothness of the three curves of figure 4. But though differ-
ing in details, the three stations agree in showing in common certain
principal trends, and thereby indicate a real variation of the sun.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
quired. These are made at our stations several times on each observ-
ing day by means of the spectrobolometer. This instrument, shown
diagrammatically in figure 3, is explained in the Annals. Plate 3
shows a group of successive solar spectrobolometric observations made
at Montezuma, Chile, July 7, 1924. The relative losses of radiation
suffered at different wave lengths in transmission through the spec-
trobolometer are measured and allowed for as described in the Annals,
volume 2, pages 50-52, and volume 3, pages 27-20.
Knowing the sun’s altitude, and thereby the length of path of the
sun rays in the atmosphere compared to the length of a vertical path
therein, taken as unity, these several curves may fix the atmospheric
transmission coefficients at all wave lengths. Thereby the spectral
energy curves can be reduced in form and height to what they would
have been if observed outside the atmosphere. This reduction is ex-
plained in the Annals, volume 2, page 56, and volume 3, page 28. The
total area included under such a spectral energy curve is proportional
to the total energy of the solar beam as it would be observed with the
pyrheliometer. Hence, the ratio of areas included under two spectral
energy curves, one computed as of outside the atmosphere, and the
other observed as at the earth’s surface, is the factor by which the
pyrheliometer measurement is to be multiplied to yield the intensity
of the sun’s radiant energy outside the atmosphere. Including also,
as a factor, the square of the ratio of the earth’s actual solar dis-
tance to its mean value, we arrive at the “ solar constant of radiation.”
In the year 1919 it was discovered that a mere measurement of
the brightness of the sky surrounding the sun could be made to yield
closely enough the coefficients of atmospheric transmission at all wave
lengths. This measurement is made with the instrument called the
pyranometer. It thus becomes possible to make five solar-constant
determinations in one morning and reduce them within the time
formerly occupied with one determination. The method as now de-
veloped is explained in the Annals, volume 5, pages 110-120.
3. THE VARIATION OF THE SuN’S RADIATION
Figure 4 shows superposed in the form of 10-day means the
solar-constant results obtained at Montezuma, Table Mountain, and
Mount Brukkaros from 1925 to 1930. The order of excellence of
the stations is the order just given. This is indeed plain from the
relative smoothness of the three curves of figure 4. But though differ-
ing in details, the three stations agree in showing in common certain
principal trends, and thereby indicate a real variation of the sun.
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Figure 5 illustrates the mean result of all the evidence from 1920
to 1934, inclusive. It depends on observations at Calama and Monte-
zuma, Chile; Mount Harqua Hala and Table Mountain in the United
States, and Mount Brukkaros, Africa."
The range of variation of solar radiation as indicated by the 10-day
mean values of the solar constant is given by table 2.
4. PERIODICITIES IN SOLAR VARIATION
To casual inspection the solar variation is irregular. More careful
inspection discloses an 8-month periodicity. Eleven other periodicities
have also been found and evaluated. As successively discovered, they
have been removed by subtraction, one by one, from the numerical
record so as to simplify the search for other solar periodicities. The
process of evaluating and removing periodicities is illustrated for an
I1-month period by table 3 and figure 6. Plate 2 shows a machine
capable of doing the same thing.” *
The reader will note that this computation of the 11-month solar
period is separated into several parts nearly similar to each other whose
mean result is to be repeated consecutively and added to consecutive
repetitions of other periodicities to produce the second curve in fig-
ure 7. The partial mean curves computed in table 3 are seen to differ
somewhat in form and amplitude, but to agree fairly closely as to the
phases of maximum and minimum values of solar radiation. These
independent determinations at different epochs, all yielding 11-month
periodicities in nearly the same phase, seem to strongly support the
veridity of the 11-month solar period. The third group, indeed (1930-
1934) shows about 3 months lag in phase. As will be shown in sections
14B and 25 below, there is some reason to anticipate a change of phase
of some of the periodicities about January 1934. Possibly this is the
cause of the observed phase-shift. Later observations will settle it.
* The values given in fig. 5 and table 2 are provisional for the years 1931-1934
and may be altered in revision.
“See The Periodometer, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 4, 1932.
* In the analysis of curves, most investigators employ developments of Fourier’s
methods. That is, they represent the observed curve as a summation of a number
of arbitrary harmonic curves of integral periodic relationships. These constituent
harmonic curves have the periods 4, 4, {,... 1/n of the entire unit length of the
curve analyzed. In such a case as that of a harmonic analysis of the sun-spot
numbers, none of the constituent harmonics have any independent physical
significance whatever. Nor is it to be supposed that the harmonic form itself
represents at all closely the march of any physical quantity connected with the
phenomenon. It has seemed to me preferable to discard this tedious and arbitrary
procedure, and to compute the actual mean forms of the solar periodicities as
illustrated by table 3 and fig. 6.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT Il
5. ANALYSIS OF THE SOLAR VARIATION
The curve of solar variation contains, however, not only a number
of regular periodic constituents, but also accidental errors of nearly
as great amplitudes as the periodic terms themselves. These various
constituents, accidental and periodic, are confused together, and mutu-
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ally influence the graphic expressions of each other in the observed
curve. For the purpose of simplification it has seemed best to remove
the several periodic terms one by one, beginning with those of shortest
period. In the presence of confusing variations from other causes,
these short-period curves may be the most accurately investigated of
any because they present the largest numbers of cases which may
2
VOL. 94
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
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SUOYD]S 1[D4I2IS JD SuOYDAdISQC Worl pajsnlppy pun pajIa]]0D ‘sanjvA unapy Avp-uay “syupjsuoy ADJOS patsafa4g—z ATAV I,
1920 2) 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 1930 3) 32 33 34 35 36 37 1938
PLP a
nn eee
11), OPA Vee Aa
A aa a AI
mh ae Pe ee
2 RC gn
AA LOY
fe ees | A AL | Lee
a Pv AE | SY ORE
Fic. 7.—Analysis and synthesis of solar variation 1920-1934. The synthetic curve B is drawn below the observed curve A to avoid confusion. Successive derivations of the shorter periodicities precede their general mean. The 23-year periodicity
presents as yet only 15 years of its course and is partly estimated.
1.960]
1.950
1.950 1.940
1,940 1.930
1.930 1.920
1.920
0.00.04 .08 .J2 .16 .20 CAL.
ne
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4 | Me me vl Bis
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT TS
be combined to determine their mean forms. Interferences from other
periodicities and from accidental errors are largely eliminated when
occurring in different phases in so many independent cases.
As stated above, an 8-month periodicity in solar variation was seen
by the first inspection, and this was first determined. Then the original
curve was modified by subtracting from its ordinates a sufficient num-
TABLE 3.—The r1-month Periodicity in Solar Variation"
General
Jan. 1920—-July 1924 Mean Aug. 1924—-Jan. 1930 Mean Feb. 1930—-Aug. 1934 Mean Mean ?
wre ee, ee ee, eo
68 59 58 28 43 51 47 52 37 44 45 30 43 36 44 54 33 42 42 1.9421
67 57 5I 24 40 48 38 54 43 41 42 30 41 43 43 50 28 44 42 1.9431
60 48 53 16 40 43 29 48 41 44 44 31 40 46 42 44 29 43 41 1.9437
60 62 50 29 41 48 39 5I 42 50 43 30 43 43 40 59 37 41 44 1.9441
57 53 48 26 41 45 49 44 44 45 49 38 45 39 44 53 41 48 45 1.9445
58 48 47 22 39 43 45 44 41 46 45 35 43 39 41 55 41 39 43 1.9446
60 41 38 27 34 40 50 57 41 48 44 36 46 42 32 55 46 49 45 1.9447
49 53 45 22 42 42 51 46 30 45 49 33 44 40 45 65 41 46 47 1.0447
34 54 49 29 39 41 50 49 40 47 45 34 44 41 47 55 34 48 45 1.0443
50 54 46 32 39 44 47 40 39 45 44 35 42 42 46 47 50 55 48 1.9441
56 38 52 21 38 41 49 47 37 43 39 33 41 41 45 56 45 srt 48 1.9435
51 40 50 16 21 36 45 46 42 44 40 33 42 41 37 53 46 51 46 1.9431
48 46 46 24 36 40 44 45 36 42 39 33 40 43 36 60 47 62 50 1.9424
58 43 42 33 40 43 50 48 38 41 32 32 40 43 49 62 40 46 48 1.9418
48 45 34 I5 42 31 41 44 32 47 36 35 39 40 48 56 37 46 45 1.9407
42 50 32 25 38 37 46 42 32 43 39 33 30 44 45 52 37 47 45 1.9404
33 49 30 29 38 36 39 43 30 41 34 35 34 50 51 47 46 45 48 1.9306
38 51 24 28 39 36 46 44 33 41 22 32 36 45 49 41 32 51 44 1.9389
45 29 21 30 45 34 39 37 37 44 29 29 36 42 57 33 37 60 46 1.9384
39 42 29 23 42 35 47 39 37 43 33 28 38 41 5I 35 35 45 41 1.9376
49 38 22 30 41 36 40 33 37 43 28 31 35 39 43 42 39 40 41 1.9371
27/9 53) 010) 27840033 42 35 41 42 25 29 36 39 49 43 39 42 42 1.9365
25 54 14 30 43 33 36 42 39 36 29 31 36 35 51 32 39 41 40 1.9362
31 50 12 35 43 34 41 31 36 36 31 30 34 42 45 36 35 37 37 1.0359
5t 46 00 20 41 32 4335-37 85) BL, 3h) 36 39 46 31 36 46 40 1.9361
44 57 12 35 43 36 48 39 42 31 29 35 37 40 47 20 39 44 40 1.9366
45 36 21 34 45 36 44 35 42 36 34 40 39 41 44 26 35 38 37 1.0374
44 58 14 35 50 40 44 32 37 44 30 39 34 4 49 30 28 48 39 1.9385
54 54 17 29 52 4I 49 38 43 41 33 37 39 41 44 36 34 42 39 1.9392
4o 48 20 46 53 41 53 42 43 42 31 37 41 35 51 30 38 41 39 1.9398
53 54 21 44 46 44 43 39 42 47 31 35 40 41 47 23 38 44 39 1.9401
49 60 15 40 49 43 44. 38 45 46 25 39 40 45 46 18 40 43 38 1.9406
45 53 20 40 41 40 49 42 43 46 30 37 40 41 40 32 42 45 40 1.9410
® The figures in the table are to be understood as subjoined to 1.900. Thus, for 68 read
1.968 calories, etc.
> Computed from smooth curves representing the three groups.
ber of successive repetitions of the mean form of the 8-month peri-
odicity. Thereupon inspection seemed to indicate an 11-month peri-
odicity. With this also removed, a 7-month periodicity showed itself.
Proceeding in this way, periodicities of 7, 8, 11, 21, 25, and 45 months
were successively removed.’ The residual curve remaining after their
removal showed very plainly as its major feature a periodicity of 68
months. It has the largest amplitude of any of the solar periodicities.
*In our latest analysis, extending from 1920 to 1934, additional solar periodici-
ties of 9%, 34, 393, 92 months, and one of 23 years were added to the above list.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Unfortunately, accurate solar-constant determinations have not been
available long enough to fix the lengths of these periods very ac-
curately. In the discussion of weather periodicities below, evidence
is presented indicating corrections of plus 1 day, minus 3 days, and
plus 1 month, respectively, to the periodicities stated above as 8, I1,
and 45 months.
6. SYNTHESIS OF SOLAR VARIATION
Having resolved the curve of observation of solar variation into
12 periodicities of approximately determined lengths and amplitudes,
the next step was to synthesize these constituents and see how well
their summation represents the original curve of observation. This
operation is shown graphically in its details and completion in figure 7.
The average of residuals between the original curve A and the syn-
thetic curve B is only 0.0036 calories, or 0.19 percent. It appears that
the whole solar variation displayed by the observed monthly means is
comprised in these 12 periodicities. The small average deviation may
reasonably be ascribed to experimental error.
7. LoNG-RANGE PREDICTIONS OF SOLAR VARIATION
The curves in figure 7 represent the third analysis and synthesis of
solar variation. A 3-year forecast of solar variation is given there.
This analysis is based on so much longer a period of observation than
the first and second analyses that several new long periodicities are
disclosed which add decidedly to the accuracy of the representation.
The first and second analyses were published each with a 2-year fore-
cast attached. (See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 85, no. 1, 1931;
vol. 89, no. 5, 1933.) These predictions and the events are shown
in figure 8. The average of residuals for the first prediction is 0.0079
calorie, or 0.41 percent. The reader will observe that the first pre-
diction indicated an expectation of values all above normal, although
at the time the prediction was made the solar radiation had been almost
continuously below normal for many months. The event generally
confirmed this expectation.
Unfortunately, a volcanic eruption in Chile interrupted the con-
tinuity of the solar-constant observations at Montezuma, so that this
series of 2-years’ observations is at a disadvantage. It is probable
that part of the discrepancy, May to November, 1932, is caused by
the volcano. Only Montezuma values are used in preparing the figure.
The second prediction was made from .data closing in September
1932, and again a prediction of solar variation for 2 years in advance
NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 15
was ventured. The average of residuals between predicted and ob-
served values is 0.0071 calorie, or 0.37 percent. Although maxima
and minima are well placed, there is a decided separation of the curves
near the end in figure 8. This is cured in figure 7, and in that figure
the average deviation for the curves thus far observed is reduced to
1.960 =e oma
N
pal |
aa cs
1.950 H \ Y \ a [\
\ | aes
| \ A
ae TN A
OBSERVED \ \
I. + \f NS
fe t A “\
\ fe
/
|
1.920 | 1 |
a SS SS ie ow > rE Ge 5 29) Is a 7 &
Feet ay ed eG ae ee 8 6 8 Se 2 Se Soe
=) 5) 22 Si My =e Sy 22 PIS) Mire Se pe ow eS Fe Sees Fe oe) Ore)
193) 1932 1933, 1934 1935
Fic. 8.—Predicted and observed solar variation. The maxima and minima
occur in the two curves at nearly identical phases. The observed curve may be
faulty in 1932 owing to the Chilean volcanic eruption. The separation of the
curves toward the end is due to a 23-year periodicity not taken account of.
0.0036 calories, or 0.19 percent. As explained in caption 26, on
page 86, there may possibly be a change of phase in solar variation
about 1934, tending to modify the 3-year forecast given in figure 7.
Il. WEATHER RESPONSIVE TO PERIODIC SOLAR CHANGES
8. Sun-Spot INFLUENCE
Having strong indications of 12 long-continued periodic fluctua-
tions in solar radiation, statistical studies were made to seek for their
effects on temperature and precipitation. First taking the departures
16
1.0
09
Fic.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
D,
MAR.1875 —
SEPT. 1879
D,
FEB.1887/~ SEPT. 1890
Oye |
FEB.1899/— SEPT. 1902
De
FEB. 1911 - SEPT. 1914
Do .
1) FEB,1922 —
OCT. 1924
MONTHS
fais ES
ic ° F Fe
SPOTS MODERATE
ie
8
I. 09,
iB,
"| JUNE 1919 - MAR. NI920
VOL. 94
~" AUG.I880 - MAR. 1885
JUNE 1895 \ MAR.1897
Bs
AUG.1904 - FEB. 1909
B4
O 1.
10.9 40
A-D = SUN-SPOT SHIFTS
IN PHASE OF II-MONTH
PERIODICITY OF TEMPERATURE,
BISMARCK, N.DAK.
1875 -1925
9.—Sun-spot numbers and phase changes.
08 09} A,
OCT. 1891 \= MAY 1895
SEPT. 1915 -
The 11-month periodicity in
temperature departures at Bismarck, N. Dak.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 17
from normal temperature at Bismarck, N. Dak., from 1875 to 1925
as computed from “ World Weather Records,’ computations similar
to those illustrated in connection with table 3 were made. It was soon
found that evidences of terrestrial counterparts of each of the seven
solar periodicities then known were apparent for short intervals, but
changes of phase occurred, showing that continuity is lacking. Further
studies seemed to show that these puzzling changes of phase were
absent if the computations were restricted to intervals when the sun-
spot activity as measured by Wolf’s numbers is nearly constant. Later,
when longer series of weather records were studied, another phase
relationship of much more importance was disclosed. But of this we
shall write later.
Figure 9 shows the results of analyses of Bismarck temperatures
aimed to disclose and evaluate the 11-month periodicity during the
interval 1875-1925. The data are segregated into four groups in which
low, medium low, medium high, and high sun-spot numbers prevailed.
The dates included in this classification are indicated on the curves.
It will be seen that a gradual shift of the maxima of the 11-month
periodicity amounting in total to fully half a period is disclosed by
the mean values.
Here, as in what follows, the reader is reminded that owing to the
presence of other periodicities, and of accidental fluctuations besides,
it is not fair to expect perfect correspondence between periodic curves
of a given length of period, when these are determined from rather
brief intervals containing but a few repetitions of the periodicity in
question. Specifically, for instance, the curve D; of low sun-spot
number statistics in figure 9 differs at months I, 2, 3 in its trend
from the other four. Also the four curves B, to By corresponding to
medium high sun-spot numbers, show considerable disagreement,
although each of them has its maximum in the first half of the period.
But when it is recalled that curves D;, Bo, and By, in figure 9, which
are the most unsatisfactory of those shown, represent, respectively,
only two, two, and one recurrences of the 11-month periodicity, it
does not seem surprising that they deviate as much as they do from
the better determined mean forms with which they are associated.
Naturally, the effects produced by the influences which determine all
other periodic and accidental changes of temperature departures can-
not be eliminated by taking the mean of only one or two recurrences
of the 11-month periodicity.
g. PREPARATION OF WEATHER DaTa
When a large program of computation of periodicities in weather
departures was undertaken, it was soon found that the monthly fluc-
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
tuations from normal values of temperature and rainfall, as derived
from the tables of “ World Weather Records ” were so large that they
obscured the principal trends which might reveal periodicities cor-
eresponding to those found in solar radiation already mentioned. As
the computations proposed were very laborious and the available com-
puters inexperienced, it seemed necessary to restrict the smoothing
process to be employed to one of great simplicity. Hence the traveling
mean of 5 months was chosen. For instance, the values employed for
March and April of any year would be represented as follows:
Jan. + Feb. + Mar.+ Apr.+ May
5
_ Feb.+Mar.+Apr.+May + June
5
In computing the monthly departures themselves, the mean values
used throughout were those found in the first volume of ‘* World
Weather Records,” neglecting those found in the second volume. It
was desirable to use the same normals at all times because we wished
the departures used to be homogeneous throughout the entire interval
of years examined. Departures from these normal values were com-
puted for the monthly mean temperatures of a great many stations in
all parts of the world, and the 5-month traveling means were computed
from these departures as described above.
With regard to precipitation a modified course was pursued. It
is well known that the precipitation at most stations is seasonal, and
at many stations the seasons present extreme variations in normal
values. Hence a departure from the normal value, expressed in inches
or centimeters, which would be moderate if it occurred in the rainy
season, would be immense and perhaps unheard of if it occurred in
the dry season. But it was indispensable for our purpose that the
departures from normal should be comparable whether occurring in
the wet or the dry season. Hence the monthly mean precipitations
were first expressed in percentages of the normal values, and then
smoothed by taking 5-month traveling means. It would perhaps have
been preferable to smooth the percentage values by taking the fifth
root of the product of five values, but for simplicity the monthly mean
percentage values of the normal were smoothed in exactly the same
way as the departures from normal temperatures.
March=
April
10. AMPLITUDES OF PERIODICITIES DIMINISHED BY SMOOTHING
It was appreciated that the 5-month traveling means of weather
data could not yield the full amplitudes of periodicities as short as
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 19
7 or 8 months. The fractional diminution produced thereby on the
amplitude of the 7-month periodicity is estimated to exceed one-half.
For the 8-month and 92-month periodicities the effect is still con-
siderable, though smaller. For periodicities of 11 months or more it
is believed to be inconsiderable. No corresponding effects of diminu-
tion occur in the analysis of the solar-constant variation itself because
the solar data are not smoothed by 5-month traveling means as are
the weather data.
II. SuUN-SPOT DATA
As indicated under caption 8, there was evidence to indicate that
changes of phase in weather periodicities occur when the activity of
the sun alters as measured by the Wolf sun-spot numbers. Therefore,
before entering upon statistical computations from weather data ex-
tending over the past century, the first step was to assign the be-
ginnings and ends of intervals throughout which sun-spot numbers
were approximately equal. To this end the monthly mean sun-spot
numbers given in “World Weather Records” were plotted as in
figure 10. In preparing figure 10, a 23-year arrangement of the sun-
spot data has been adopted. It will be noticed that, excepting the first
of the 23-year cycles shown, there is a very fair constancy of positions
of maxima and minima in the successive 23-year intervals. From this
plot the following intervals were selected as of comparable sun-spot
activity :
(a) Sun-spot numbers generally below 4o.
Jan. 1811—-Aug. 1815 ; Aug. 1818-Feb. 1826; Jan. 1832—Nov. 1834;
May 1841—Oct. 1844; Aug. 1853-Aug. 1857; Apr. 1865-Sept. 1868 ;
Aug. 1874—May 1880; Nov. 1889—June 1891 ; Dec. 1897-Sept. 1903;
Mar. 1g10—-Oct. 1914; June 1922-Apr. 1925.
(b) Sun-spot numbers generally above 40 but below So.
(b,) Ascending values (or ascending and descending values con-
tiguous). Sept. 1815-July 1818; Mar. 1826—Dec. 1831; Dec. 1834-
July 1835; Nov. 1844-July 1846; Sept. 1857—Mar. 1865 ; Oct. 1868-
Apr. 1869; June 1880—Oct. 1886; July 1891—Jan. 1892; Oct. 1903-
Feb. 1910; Nov. 1914-Feb. 1917; May 1925—Dec. 1929.
(bz) Descending values. Aug. 1839-Apr. 1841; July 1849-July
1853; Jan. 1873-July 1874; June 1894—Nov. 1897; July 1919-May
1922.
(c) Sun-spot numbers generally above 8o.
Aug. 1835-Aug. 1839; Aug. 1846-June 1849; May 1869-May
1873; Feb. 1892-May 1894; Mar. 1917-June 1919.
20
10
100
80
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
1820
(825
1830
Fic. 10—Wolf sun-spot numbers, 1810-1933.
VOL. 94
NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES——ABBOT 21
It was recognized that this arrangement was very imperfect because
of the irregular wide fluctuations of sun-spot numbers. Hence, if, as
seemed indicated, the phases of weather periodicities actually alter
with sun-spot activity, it could not be hoped that any such arrangement
would eliminate altogether these phase changes. Therefore, some
dissimilarity between the periodic curves computed for the different
intervals of time given above must certainly be expected. All that
could be hoped for would be that periodicities in weather of the
lengths found in the solar variation would seem to persist without
more than a few months of shifting backward or forward, as between
the individual intervals stated above, while during the century there
would be so persistent and obvious a tendency for maxima and minima
to recur in a certain unchanged phase as to justify a belief in the
veridical existence of the periodicity in question.
12. CORRECTIONS OF SOLAR PERIODS
It was apparent that since the interval during which daily solar-
constant work has been carried on continually is only a little over a
decade of years, it is unlikely that the supposed solar periods are de-
termined in length to within several percent of probable error. It
was hoped that if these periodicities were really reflected in the
weather, the records of such stations as Berlin, Helsingfors, Copen-
hagen, and others which are published for over a century, might enable
the lengths of the solar periodicities to be determined to very high
percentage accuracy. A change of periodic length shows itself if the
successively determined forms of any assumed period, as for example
II months, are plotted successively vertically over one another. The
maxima and minima will be found to shift steadily to the left or the
right according as the true period is less or greater than 11 months.
The first station records worked upon were those of Berlin.
13. FuLL LInEs REQUIRED IN THE STATISTICAL TABULATIONS
It is well known that the temperatures and precipitations frequently
tend to depart from normal values continually in a given sense during
considerable intervals of time. This must be so if the assumption
of a plurality of regular periodicities in weather is a true one, for
the combination of several periodicities must lead to prevailingly high
values at some times and prevailingly low values at other times. Hence,
if a table for computing a periodicity is arranged as indicated above
in caption 4, it is improper and leads to error if the first and last lines
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of the table are left incompletely filled.” Owing to influences aside
from the periodicity in progress of being computed, the variable under
investigation may be particularly high or particularly low throughout
the intervals of the time represented by the first line or the last of
the table. To use a part but not the whole of such a line in a short
table must produce distortion of the averages. Yet the total intervals
given under caption II are so short that one can ill spare any part of
them. The best course seems to be to fill the first and last lines of the
tables by extending the table a little past the limits set by equality of
sun-spot activity as represented in the caption 11. Yet this may also
lead to a distortion of the curve of averages owing to changes of phase
produced by changes of solar activity. Perfection under these cir-
cumstances is unattainable, and some indulgence to irregularities 1s
to be given on these accounts in criticizing the results.
14. BERLIN, GERMANY. DEPARTURES FROM NORMAL TEMPERATURES
It will be difficult, within the allowable limits of tabular and graph-
ical illustration, to demonstrate the findings of this research so thor-
oughly as to lead the minds of readers to conclusions such as im-
pressed themselves on those of us who followed all the computations
from day to day.
A. SEGREGATED WITH REFERENCE TO SUN-SPOT NUMBERS
A. THE II-MONTH PERIODICITY
Recalling that, owing to the smoothing by 5-month traveling means,
the 7-month and 8-month results must necessarily be unrepresentative,
let us take up first of all the 11-month analyses. In figure 11 are
given all of the 11-month mean curves for Berlin temperature de-
partures obtained by the process outlined above in captions 4, 5, 9,
ro, and 11. In order that the reader may more vividly grasp the
nature of this work the periodicity computation for low sun-spots
for the interval January 1811 to July 1815 is given in table 4. To
avoid printing numerous decimal points, the values as given are the 5-
month smoothed departures from normal monthly temperatures ex-
pressed in tenths of degrees Centigrade.
TABLE 4.—Sample Computation of 11-month Periodicity
— 6 —5 I 16 21 16 15 12 7 7 3
3 — 6 —I7 —2I —18 —22 —20 —I4 —1I10 —13 —23
—27 —18 —20 —14 I 3 —5 —8 —I3 —16 —I4
—I0 —I3 —25 —29 —24 —32 —30 —I3 — 8 —I7 —I4
8 9 16 8 2 2 3 6 =F —9 —I3
Mean —o9.6 —10.2 —I5.4 —I11.2 — 4.4 —7.4 — 8.6 — 3.4 —5.4 —9.6 —12.2
°** In table 3, what is here called a line is there a column.
[2OnGe
0:0
tO NG aL SLI
NS ACO
PACT EYEE
Finan
cde Ame a
BEAR
Fic. 11.—Eleven-month periodicity in Berlin temperatures. Low, medium, and
high sun-spot numbers. A broken line connecting curves indicates a slight defect
from full 11 months in the periodicity. Alternate full and dotted pairs “of curves
cover 23-year cycles measured from 1810.
23
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
In this sample the table contains five lines. Of 11 such tables il-
lustrated in figure 11 by plots depicting the 11-month periodicity from
low sun-spot temperature departures, there are four tables of four
lines, four tables of five lines, one of six lines, and two of seven lines.
It is clear enough that the mean values from columns as short as
these are subject to a large fractional error. As remarked above,
the presence in the data of other periodicities than that sought, and
of accidental departures, cannot but distort mean curves depending on-
so few values per point.
If, now, the general mean value is taken at all times of low sun-
spot numbers through more than a century, it results as follows. The
unit is still the tenth of 1 degree Centigrade. An arbitrary zero is
chosen to give positive and negative values about equally.
0.4 r.2 0.8 wer 1.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.7
But if it is assumed that the true period is 11 months minus 3 days,
then the corresponding general mean is as follows:
—I.5 —0.5 —O0.I 0.7 reer 2.0 0.9 —0.3 0.0 —0.6 —0.3
The latter periodicity has an amplitude of 0.°35 C., about twice the
amplitude of the former. It results from 56 lines of smoothed values
of temperature departures covering all periods of low sun-spot num-
bers from 1811 to 1925. The method of allowing for the 3-day de-
crease of period is partially indicated by the broken inclined line of
figure 11. In detail the method is as follows: In the computation of
the general mean, the 11 means which represent individual periods of
few sun-spots were arranged in a table in such a manner that the
values connected by the broken inclined line in figure 11 composed
together one vertical column. The mean form, with phase chosen
to agree with that expected of the top curve, a, of the figure, is
given in curve 1, at the bottom of figure 11.” It is obvious that
curve a, just singled out for numerical illustration is not in the
expected phase, but is 3 months out of phase with the best periodicity.
This selection for illustration was, indeed, made to draw attention
to occasional irregularities of phase, to which we shall recur. Had
I permitted myself to alter arbitrarily the phases of two or three of
the mean curves by 2 months each, on the plea of accidental displace-
ment by terrestrial influences, then the general mean would have had
an amplitude of a full half degree Centigrade.
It seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that a periodicity lacking
3 days of 11 months in length, and with an average amplitude of
0.°35 C., persists in the temperature of Berlin during times of low
sun-spot activity for the interval of 114 years covered.
°% The mean for 11 m. 0 d. is given by curve li’.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 25
But the amplitudes alter widely from time to time among the I1
curves shown. Not only do they thus vary, but the forms of the curves
differ widely also. When these features are carefully scanned, there
seems to be disclosed an interesting regularity. Beginning with the
year 1819, the forms and amplitudes may be arranged im pairs with
very good effect. The only deviation from noticeable similarity among
these pairs occurs for the pair covering the interval March 1886 to
July 1903. Of this pair of curves the first covers that period when
the sky was still filled with dust from the tremendous volcanic eruption
of Krakatoa. Dr. W. J. Humphreys has called attention to the dis-
turbance of weather which volcanic dust produces.” We shall recur
frequently to the similarity of such pairs when considering other data.
Curves a, to ks, figure 11, similarly deduced, cover the intervals of
time in caption 11 when the Wolf monthly mean sun-spot numbers
lay generally between 40 and 80. In part of the data the sun-spot
activity was increasing, and in the other part it was decreasing. But
no appreciable difference in the data seems to arise thereby. It appears
that neither 11 months o days nor 11 months minus 3 days gives
the maximum amplitude of the periodicity in this case. The best
period is 11 months minus 14 days. The following mean values show
this:
: M 1
Assumed period a eae
aie Str Gh GKGaadaoeoodde —0.9 0.0 —I.I 0.0 0.8 GOLF 0.3 O.1 1.8 0.4 —0.5
Il mM, Minus 3) ds... 0.2 1.4 1.0 1.4 0.9 0.3 —0.3 —I.2 —0.6 —0.4 0.4
II m. minus 14 d..... Tes; rae} 0.3 —0.9 —I.9 —2.2 —2.8 —1.2 —0.2 1.5 2.0
The relative amplitudes as just given are 2.9, 2.6, and 4.8, respectively,
which show a decided preference for 11 months minus 14 days. In
each case the phase given is the same as that expected for the interval
1815-1819. Here, as before, it is noted that the curves show decided
similarity when grouped in pairs beginning with the second curve.
The only exception is the last pair which presents dissimilarity. Curve
1, gives the mean result, assuming a period of 11 months minus 14
days." It depends on 58 lines of temperature departures, and shows
a range of 0.°48C., and therefore, like the case already discussed,
may fairly be regarded as demonstrative.
Turning now to the temperature data corresponding to Wolf sun-
spot numbers exceeding 80, these are graphically expressed in curves
ag to es of figure 11. These curves rest on few data, only 4, 3, 4, 3,
and 2 lines, respectively. Excepting a;, they are closely similar. The
curve a; is in fact displaced 5 months in phase from all the others.
” Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 176, pp. 131-172, 1913.
¢ The mean for 11 m. 0 d. is given by curve l,’.
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
No explanation for this displacement is offered. The mean curve, 1;
is computed by transposing the phase of a; by 5 months and taking a
straight mean as of period 11 months o days. The result is as follows,
still in units of one-tenth degree Centigrade:
0.7 —0.4 I. —3.6 —3.8 —o.9 —0.1 2.6 4.0 Bee 1.0
The range is nearly 0.°8 Centigrade.
The skew relationship of period between the best 11-month periodi-
cities as determined for the low, medium, and high sun-spot activities
is puzzling, but perhaps not impossible to account for. It will be re-
called that the periods found were 11 months minus 3 days, 11 months
minus 14 days, and 11 months o days, respectively. What this implies,
as far as the 11-month periodicity goes, is the advance of the tempera-
ture influence associated with high sun spots over that associated with
low sun spots by 14 months in 130 periods. As the 11-month peri-
odicity is only one of many, and produces less than a tenth of the
total influence which, as we shall see, is exerted by those periodicities
which are nearly aliquot parts of 23 years, the effect is not conspicuous.
B. THE 8-MONTH PERIODICITY
Figure 12 shows, in curves a, to k,, the mean 8-month periodicity
results derived from the intervals of low sun-spot activity. As shown
by the inclined lines there seems to be an advance of 5 months in 110
years, corresponding to a corrected period of 8 months plus 1 day.
Taking account of this modification, but preserving the same phase
expected as of 1811-1815, the mean results are as follows:
—o.6 0.4 1.6 Be 2a O.I —2.4 —2.5
The range is almost 0.°5 Centigrade, which owing to the modifying
influence of the 5-month smoothing, already referred to, must be less
than the real average range of this periodicity. The mean curve, h,
figure 12, is based on 75 lines covering the intervals of low sun-spot
numbers from 1811 to 1925. Scanning the curves a, to k, on figure 12,
the pairing tendency, already referred to in discussing the 11-month
analysis, is recognizable. The only marked inconsistency of the pairs,
as arranged with a beginning in 1819, occurs for curves d; and e;.
It will be noted that for 8-month periodicities, as with the 11-month
results, the pairs palpably begin with the second curve, about 1819.
Turning to the intervals when the Wolf sun-spot numbers lay
between 40 and 80, we again find the greatest amplitude by assuming
a period of 8 months plus 1 day. Choosing the phase to agree with
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 27
b
uw
0)
~“
Jee
ot
a
‘
y) NJ
YN
Diese
Fic. oe periodicity in Berlin temperatures. Low, medium, and
high sun-spot numbers. A broken line connecting curves indicates a slight excess
over 8 months in the periodicity. Alternate full and dotted pairs of curves cover
23-year cycles measured from 18109.
3
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
that expected for the first interval, the mean values as thus reduced
run as follows:
Mean form
Assumed period A Range
ih fry On GheanadannndooosonoodoonsoGes 0.1 —o.6 —I.I —1I.0 0.3 0.4 0.6 —0.3 7
ine DER Choc andeoAaceoouoDNoCOM se, 1.0 —0.I —0.6 —I.g9 —0.3 TAL 1.4 3.8
The average range of the 8 months minus 1 day periodicity is almost
0.°4 Centigrade (see fig. 12, 1,). This range is more than twice as
great as for the periodicity 8 months o days.
Pairing is not so well marked in these curves as appears in figure 12,
a, tok,. It, indeed, shows strongly as between curves ho, 12, and Jo, ke,
but the curves a, to g» seem inclined to change form at every sun-spot
period of 11+ years instead of every second period, as in former
cases. We shall note this tendency frequently in other connections.
Curves a; to e; of figure 12 relate to intervals when the Wolf
numbers generally exceeded 80. As in the corresponding case of the
I1-month periodicity, they show no definite deviation from the origin-
ally assumed period, 8 months o days. There is on the whole a good
agreement between the curves. Only the curve d; runs counter to
all of the others, but it is at the same time one of the weakest, repre-
senting the mean of but four lines. The general mean is represented
in the curve, l; and runs as follows:
2.2 —I.0 —2.6 —1.7 0.0 Leap 2.6 2.9
Its range is over 0.°5 Centigrade.
c. THE 7-MONTH PERIODICITY
The 7-month periodicity, as already stated is much modified by
the 5-month smoothing. However, in the curves representing intervals
with sun-spot numbers between 40 and 8o there is such an excellent
case of the pairing which starts with the year 1819 that these curves
are given, a, to k, annexed to figure 12. There is no exception to the
similarity of the pairs from curve bz to curve kz. Two excellent pairs
are found corresponding to low sun spots, but generally these forms
change with each new sun-spot period.
There is no indication in any of the analyses of the 7-month peri-
odicity of a departure in length from the period assumed. The fol-
lowing are the mean forms and ranges. The ranges may be assumed
to be only about half as great as would be found without 5-month
smoothing.
Sun-spot Seven m. od. mean periodic forms
numbers f Range
Bel owaraOtaerreeteeree -teltaisiereiioleiels oe eioreissaicierelsts 0.7 1.8 0.0 —O.I 0.4 —0.6 —I.4 023) 1C.
AO! CO m BO sre craps leletonesarever clove a(eieiss4 iaieeisrerstere e erescte 0.8 0.3 —0.4 —0.9 —0.9 0.1 0.7 OsziG:
7 Noxtelutsey idocaconnpoonbeNdoic doshas dogade 1.2 0.8 —1.2 —I.9 —o.6 0.6 Te7, orc:
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 29
p. DEPENDENCE OF PHASE ON SunN-spot ACTIVITY
In caption 8, evidence was presented showing that the phases of
the 11-month and other periodicities observed in temperature de-
partures of Bismarck, N. Dak., altered as a function of the sun-spot
activity. Referring now to figure 13, the data for Berlin are not wholly
consistent with that conclusion. As not all of the 11-year sun-spot
periods show high Wolf numbers, let us restrict our inquiry to the
periods culminating about 1837, 1847, 1871, 1893, and 1918. Con-
sider first the 11-month periodicity. In table 5 are given the months
within the 11-month period when maxima prevail. The results cover
times of low, medium, and high Wolf numbers. The shift of maxima
for medium and high Wolf numbers is indicated in the fourth column.
In the last column are given without details the corresponding shifts
found for the 8-month periodicity data.
TABLE 5.—Shift of Phase, Berlin Temperatures, Attending Sun-spot Activity
Years Wolf Months 11-month 8-month
covered numbers of maxima shifts shifts
IsEWENCKY “GboodoosedsnoaondcooOO} Below 40 Ir to 4 0.0 0.0
1834-35 and 1839-41.............. 40 to 80 © tos +1.0 —1I.0
IPG PUCK), SaoamnocaacooaqadasDO0G Above 80 2to 4 +1.0 —4.0
TRAT=ISAAY s/a\cisrerererersiseverevs a ateretsieteisis Below 40 9g to 2 0.0 0.0
1844-46) cand 1849-53 ccs teres eleisle 40 to 80 6 to II —2.5 —2.0
TBAO*1B49) aie oxo cya ca sneraare 01s caleyavere%e Above 80 8 to 9 —3.0 —1.5
TBG5*1868). Seresieisiconrelsaicremie™ Sersiats « Below 40 10 to II 0.0 0.0
1868-69 and) 1873-752. .<.<0ocnees 4o to 80 5 to 8 —4.0 +2.0
T8GQ*I SII) A ieereisicciny ieee weteiatovloronser Above 80 8 to 10 —1.5 0.0
TSBO=ITSGO! | s.wrsyaistslaieretelere eieveeheine.vcier Below 40 rm) toyz 0.0 0.0
E890-92) ‘anid! 1895-072 .« «ccleic wee elec 4o to 80 10 to 2 —0.5 —o.I
TSQ2-TOOS a aistelevalesinietelciniewiieieieisiorse Above 80 9 to II —2.0 —1.0
TOLO-LOUA)® Paisaieinsisisioie hoes siete eee Below 40 3 to 5 0.0 0.0
TOU4-17 ANd) IOl9=20se..eo0e cee «oe 4o to 80 Ito 5 —1.0 —3.0
—6.5
LOU =LOTO). | yeiaysisieleisiciaie re aresie Sines Seer Above 40 8 to 11 } —2.0
or +5.5
There appears a prevailing tendency for the phase to be earlier with
higher sun-spot activity, but it is not as conspicuous or regularly
progressive a tendency as appeared in the Bismarck data. In fact
the evidence seems to show that though there is a small change of
phase toward earlier dates within the cycles, when Wolf numbers
increase, yet this effect is small compared with changes of phase which,
as we are about to point out, occur at integral multiples of 114 or of 23
years, counted from January 1819. Such changes of phase will next
be demonstrated.
E. DEPENDENCE OF PHASE ON EpocH COUNTED FROM 1819
It was desired to present this phenomenon apart from changes of
phase accompanying variations of sun-spot activity. Hence the data
30
y (love.
° °
0.0 0.2 O04 06 0.
°
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
5 7 ©) I
Frc. 13.—Sun-spot numbers and phase changes. Eleven-month
temperature periodicity at Berlin for low, medium, and high sun-
spot numbers.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 31
were limited to times of low Wolf numbers. Smoothed departures
from normal temperatures at Berlin were arranged in periodicity tables
each of which fell entirely within a period of 23 years, and the be-
ginnings and ends of such 23-year periods fell always at an integral
multiple of 23 years counting from January 1819. Periodicities of
7, 8, 92, II, 12, 13.6, 21, 25, 34, and 46 months were investigated in
this manner. Owing to the moderating influence of the 5-month
smoothing, already referred to, the 7-month periodicity was indecisive
and is omitted here. Of the 12-month periodicity I shall treat sepa-
rately. Figure 14 shows the results of all others. In the figure the
8-month curves are corrected in phase to the more exact period 8
months plus 1 day, and the 11-month curves are corrected in phase
to the more exact period 11 months minus 3 days. The scales of
abscissae and ordinates are altered in the 21-, 25-, 34-, and 46-month
plots for greater convenience.
In table 6 the Roman numerals I to V refer to 23-year intervals
ending respectively at one, two, three, four, and five times 23 years
after January 1, 1819.
TABLE 6.—Comparison of Phases and Amplitudes. Berlin Temperature
Periodicities
Periodicity Phase Amplitude
8-month Vii its and Vi similar: I and II moderate; III and V
IV opposed. large; IV small.
of-month I and V similar; 11, ID, I, III, and V_ moderate; IV
and IV opposed. large; II small.
1I-month I, II, and V similar; III II, III, and IV moderate; I
and IV opposed. and V large.
13.6-month Lelie and) SLL sumilar: IV and V moderate; I and III
IV and V opposed. large; II small.
21-month iPand Wiesimilars i Thr. Amplitudes nearly equal.
and IV opposed.
25-month I, III, and V similar; II III, IV, and V moderate; I and
and IV opposed. II large.
34-month TeeliVeeand Ve simulans) Tl II, III, and V large; I and IV
and III opposed. very large.
46-month I and V similar; II, III, All large, II, IV, and V very
and IV opposed. large.
Notes.—As all the tables were prepared from the same original smoothed departures, the
influence of the unremoved shorter periodicities is very pronounced in causing irregularities
in the curves representing longer periodicities. This must obviously occur because only a few
repetitions (in the 46-month tables sometimes only two, sometimes three) were available for
the longer periodicities. Sometimes the longer periodicities display periodic submultiples
conspicuously. For instance in 46-I there is obviously a periodicity of 9.2 months superposed,
while in 46-II there is obviously a periodicity of 11.5 months superposed. These two unusual
periodicities correspond, respectively, to 1/30 and 1/24 of 23 years.
Referring to the table, let us now tentatively suppose that the
smoothed temperature departures of Berlin were plotted in 23-year
cycles for the 115 years, 1819 to 1923. Considering figure 14 and
table 6, it would almost certainly be found that many features of simi-
larity would appear in the successive plots. For so many periodic
[Rehtey,
do 2
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
8 MO. +1D. 9} mo. 1 MO-3D. 136 MO. 21 MO.
| EN [
| ’
nana |
av de ie 46| MO. &
| | [|
fz |
isecener
& i ia |
Se aeeaaanee
WY |
can arene
Ae
i=
| | 4
1 fale ies Fe
Care este
Fic. 14.—Dependence of phase in periodicities of Berlin temperatures on epoch
measured from 1819. Each curve given is the mean form for 23 years. In each
group the top curve starts from January 1819. Note prevailing similarity of
curves I, III, V and again of curves II, 1V. Exceptions noted in text.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT Be
features would recur in successive 23-year intervals in nearly the
same phases that the successive complex curves formed by their
summation must themselves show features of some similarity, though
a little altered in phase and amplitude from one 23-year interval to
another. It is clear that, of the various intervals, V would be most
similar to I, because its phase is found similar to I for all periodicities
given except 13.6. Interval III is next most similar to I, but IV, and
next to that II, would be most dissimilar to I. On the other hand,
II and LV would be found to present many features of similarity each
to each. We shall recur to this when we consider the possible applica-
tion of periodicities to long-range forecasting. Here I content myself
with hinting that three most similar intervals, I, III, and V, and two
opposed similar intervals, II and IV, have separations of 46 years.
The 12-month periodicity is particularly instructive. Meteorologists
have long known that a very long interval of years does not suffice
to yield monthly means of temperatures which will be closely followed
in the mean during a succeeding equally long interval of years. Hence
it was expected that a 12-month periodicity would be found in the de-
partures from normal temperatures at Berlin. But it would be natural
to suppose that its cause is purely terrestrial and that it would show
no relation to solar periodicities. The contrary is certainly the case.
Figure 15 shows clearly that the 23-year interval is of decisive in-
fluence in changing the phase and amplitude of the 12-month peri-
odicity. This is true not only at Berlin but at all other stations which
we have investigated, including Helsingfors, Copenhagen, Greenwich,
Cape Town, Adelaide, and others.
In preparing figure 15, the 12-month data were not restricted to
times of low sun spots as were the data for figure 14. For it was
not to be presumed at first that this 12-month periodicity was due
to changes originating in the sun, but rather on the earth. These more
numerous data gave two tables of about a dozen lines each for each
23 years. In this way abundant evidence proves the critical importance
of January 1819 and multiples of 23 years thereafter as determining
points in the pairing of the curves, such as has already been referred
to. Another interesting reference to these curves in figure 15 will be
found below under caption 14-B.
From the studies rehearsed above under the various captions of
14-A, we conclude:
1. Certain periodicities found in solar variation are found persisting
throughout more than a century in Berlin temperature departures.
2. Small corrections to the supposed lengths of two of these solar
periods are indicated by these long ranges of data.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
34
MO. COPENHAGEN
93
EE
a
‘ol G19) Fue LO
15.—The 23-year influence on periodicities of 9} and 12
Each bracketed pair covers 23 years. Full curves are from
original data, dotted curves from residuals after removing many
Fic
months.
periodicities.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 35
3. The 23-year period, which is the approximate least common
multiple of the observed solar periodicities, and is also the approximate
length of Hale’s solar magnetic cycle, is of dominating importance in
the terrestrial weather-responses to solar influences.
4. While the intensity of sun-spot activity has some influence on the
phases of the temperature periodicities, it is by no means as important
as the arrival of integral multiples of the 23-year interval measured
from January 1819. These define large modifications both of phases
and amplitudes.
5. The 23-year period governs not only periodicities which seem
to be of purely solar causation, but also the phases and amplitudes of
the 12-month periodicity in departures from normal temperature. This
periodicity might otherwise have been regarded as purely of accidental
terrestrial origin.
6. It is not possible to arrive at definite conclusions as to the veridity
of periodicities of long duration from data restricted to 23-year in-
tervals, and further restricted to intervals of comparable sun-spot
activity. Another attack on this part of the subject follows.
B. ANALYSES GROUPED IN PERIODS OF 114 YEARS AND 23 YEARS, BASED
ON JANUARY 1819, AS DATE OF DEPARTURE, AND
INCLUDING ALL DATA
The preceding discussion of Berlin temperatures was restricted to
intervals of comparable sun-spot activity. But though this is desirable
it is not vital, and restrictions relating to 23-year intervals having
been proved to be more essential, it becomes necessary to merge all
data, whatever the prevailing sun-spot activity, in order to study fairly
the longer periodicities. It has been proved advantageous to base
our studies on the zero date January 1819.
A, THE II-MONTH PERIODICITY
As before, we begin with the 11-month period. As there is here
no intention of making a century-long comparison, no account need
be made of the correction (minus 3 days), nor when we deal with
the 8-month periodicity of its correction (plus 1 day). Table 7
gives, for illustration, a complete tabular determination of the mean
I1-month periodicity curves from January 1819 to October 1864.
The similarity of the two halves of each of the two 23-year periods
covered, and the complete opposition of these two 23-year periods,
each to each, are clearly shown in figure 16. It is instructive to note
how abruptly the transition occurs from one type to the other just
at the turn of 23 years after January 1819. The two types differ
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
00 02040608 1.0° C
cae
ener
—T | =
aautzax Y | | | | | NS
Fic. 16.—The 11- and 21-month periodicities in Berlin tempera-
tures. Phase dominated by the 23-year cycle from 1819. Full and
dotted pairs of curves each cover a cycle of 23 years.
Under A, wording should read “ Mean I, III, IV, VI, VIII, IX.”
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND
WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT
37
in much the same way as the right and left hands. In what follows
we may sometimes speak of them as the right and left types.
TABLE 7.—Berlin
Jan. 1819—Dec. 1829
Temperature Departures 1t1-month
8 9 16 16 17
—24 —24 —I7 —5 —I
—I10 —I0 —T2 2 8
19 26 29 34 31
5 — 3 —23 —23 —26
—2 a 10 14 20
—'5 —t1 6 16 25
=2 =A = % 3 II
13 T7. 18 20 16
3 19 16 12 10
Si 3 9 6 2
—18 —20 —9 o I
Mean —22 +13 +33 +79 +82
Jan, 1830-Nov. 1841
—44 —34 —I5 —2 7
=f =F =O Sh 4
I 5 3 6 fo)
=f =§ 4 att
—I15 —4 13 16 20
20 17 10 8 II
2 2 —6 —I10 —I0
—I2 —I4 —5 —8 = 3
—I7 — 8 —7 —2 I
—16 — 6 II —5 — 6
vs == "7 aad: eat 5
—2 —2 —2 —2 (0)
—13 —16 to) —I 6
Mean 85 61 22 6 +24
Dec. 1841—Nov. 1852
8 5) o —4 fo)
=f =5 =4 3. =F
10 10 8 5 3
Sas —I5 — 8 S10) —34
— 3 oO I 6 14
8 15 12 I — 8
3 4 —2 I — 6
7 2 = =2 =C
A SS = BO ae
= 18, =f =a = 5
II 2 — 6 —I0 —Il
7 4 2) 16) 4
Mean +29 +18 —14 —3I —63
Dec. 1852-Oct. 1864
16 6 —4 —16 —23
=f =7 =O = 5 3
—I —I1 —16 —2I —22
—I —9 — 6 —I10 —4
—5 —10 —3 —2 (o)
II 18 14 20 13
2 6 Il 13 14
12 9 II II 10
Ae 141 Al 30
— 6 8 4 —I 2
7 10 10 8 3
18 20 19 II I
5 2 —4 —18 —II
Mean +35 +37 +20 —IO0 —I5
19
—6
fo)
27
—32
18
22
~
bon OWW
4
|
ru
iS)
|
|
bk OW
Periodicity
19 14 6 —7
o —S5 — 8 — 6
cae ae aah ar i4
22 17 8 I
2 7 Gf 6
14 8 fo) —6
15 12 4 —6
2 4 I — 6
3 —I2 —Il —5
3 o = 3 =F
(3) () —7 —16
—6 —13 —32 —42
tp370 | aE) ae dO S02
=) =—38 Ai
3 = =i o
— FG — 8 —I2 —7
10 I —5 — 3
16 10 19 23
9 5 20
=i 5 3 4
5 ce aaa, —ti2
—18 —27 —28 —33
— 6 I —iI —4
7 3 5 2
—5 (0) —10 —9Q
I —I 4 13
+10 —I19 ——21 —22
—4 —I —5 —II
10 6 10 &
—8 —10 —I2 —I5
=
18 12 13 10
—16 —2I —9 —6
—14 —8 —7 —5
to) 9 7 5
—I4 —2I —I2 —I4
— 6 —' 3 2 8
—3 —4 2 II
7 5 9 14
—66 —65 —31 —9
aS) —4 o ear Tf
2 —I1 —I —I
—27 —I2 —9 —7
I —I — 8 —6
2 —-—!1 I 2
— 8 —7 —I17 —II
21 26 16 16
3 I =a 2 — 4
—I13 —I19 —1I2 —S5
7 7 5 4
I ut 5 13
25 3 5 15
—22 —I19 —13 —I5
—35 —20 —23 —2
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The little double table (table 8) extracted from table 7 emphasizes
this behavior. The 11-month periodicity as computed from January
1819 to December 1829, and from January 1830 to November 1841,
shows high maxima at the fifth month. From December 1841 to
November 1852 and from December 1852 to October 1864, on the
contrary, deep minima are found at the sixth month. The transition
from the first of these types to the second is abrupt. To show its
abruptness the last 22 months ending with November 1841 may be
contrasted with the first 22 months beginning with December 1841.
Tasie 8.—Abrupt Phase-change. Berlin 11-month Temperature Periodicity
2 2 2 2 o —4 —§5 o -—I0 —= 9 —iI9
—1I3. —16 o —I 6 2 I —I 4 13 9g: Nov. 1841
Mean Hols 8.0 1.0 5 3.0 1.0 2.0 —0.5 3-0 2.0 —5.0
Dec. 1841: 8 7 o —4 o 3 4 I 5 II —4
—1I —5 —4 3 7 14 10 6 10 —5 2
Mean 3-5 1.0 2.0° —0.5 35 8.5 —y.0 —3.5 —2.5 —8.0 —1.0
Obscured as they are by the influences of other periodicities and
accidental effects, yet in the mean of the first two lines of table 8
the maximum occurs on the fifth month, and in the mean of the last
two lines the minimum occurs on the sixth month, just as happens with
the general means found in table 7. Even in details the two mean
curves representing 22 months each are opposite, as shown by figure 17.
B. THE 2I-MONTH PERIODICITY
Take as an example of another type the 21-month periodicity shown
in figure 16. In this instance the transition from left to right in type
usually occurs at each 114 years, though not invariably. One type
holds for instance through the two periods of 114 years each from
October 1841 to June 1864. But then, note the abrupt transition
between the 42 months preceding and the 42 months following July
1864. The mean of the first pair of lines is almost precisely opposite
to the mean of the last pair, as is shown in figure 17 and table 9.
Of the to curves illustrating the 21-month periodicity, numbers 1,
3, 4, 6, 8, and 9, beginning 1819, 1841, 1852, 1875, 1897, and 1910,
respectively, are generally similar in phase, and not greatly different
in amplitude. Opposed in phase are curves 2, 5, 7, and 10, but they are
not quite so similar each to each. From this we see that during about
70 years out of 110, the 21-month periodicity, whether we regard it
as true or spurious, would have produced nearly identical effects upon
the temperature of Berlin. The general mean effect over 70 years, as
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 39
es
é
22 MONTHS BEGAN DEC.,/841
a
6 .
4
2 ~
OF 42 MONTHS PRECEDING JULY, 1864
=Z
1864
42 MONTHS FOLLOWING JULY,
Fic. 17,—Details of the 11- and 21-month periodicities in Berlin tempera-
tures. Showing abrupt reversal of phase.
VOL. 94
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
40
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NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT AI
computed from curves 1, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9, is as follows and is illustrated
at A of figure 16. The mean values which follow are expressed as
usual in units of o.°1 Centigrade.”
Te 2.3 2.8 5-4 52 4.6 3-4 2.3 0.6 —0.3 —1.8
—2.8 —1.9 —0.2 a 3-4 ait 3-8 2.1 Ta2 0.4
The range of the general mean is 0.°8 Centigrade. This mean curve
represents the tabulation of 39 lines in each of its 21 columns or 819
months in all. The contradictory results found in the remaining 24
lines, representing 504 months, themselves somewhat approach a
common type. Its mean form, shown at B of figure 16 is as follows:
—4.4 —4.2 —4.4 —5.1 —5.0 oie —z2.8 —0.7 0.6 0.2 0.9
0.8 S55 watG 2.3 1.9 2.6 0.5 Tig 2.9 4.3
Being plainly associated with periodic changes in the sun, as the dates
of the appearance and disappearance of contrasting phases in these
curves 2, 5, 7, and 10 appear to be, the existence of these curves of
a contradictory type does not, in my judgment, reasonably require
us to doubt the evidence of the other 70 years or of their own 40 years
that 21 months is a veridical period in terrestrial temperature, pro-
duced by a periodic solar variation.
c. PROGRESSIVE REMOVAL OF DETERMINED PERIODICITIES
Acting on the conclusion just expressed, I have felt it justifiable
to remove, one after another, the mean evaluations of the various peri-
odicities, and to remove them in parcels of 114 or 23 years at a time,
so as to eliminate them to the highest degree possible despite changes
of both phase and amplitude. As I am aware that this course will
be criticized and perhaps disowned by meteorologists and statisticians,
I pause at this point to refer to the 12-month periodicity, as computed
from the residuals of the 5-month smoothed Berlin temperatures,
after removing in the way just indicated, and in the following order,
the 7, 8, 11, 13.6, 21, 25, 34, 46, 68, and 9? month periodicities. Mean
values for each 114 years from 1819 to 1929 are given by the dotted
lines in figure 15. These results may be compared with the closely
juxtaposed curves for the 12-month periodicity, as previously com-
puted directly from the original data, and already referred to under
14-A. The very great similarity in general between the two sets of
curves indicates that the removal of all of those many periodicities in
114-year or 23-year parcels has not ruined the residuals for the purpose
of the 12-month analysis. Figure 15 also includes a similar pair ‘of
juxtaposed analyses of 12-month periodicities for Copenhagen, and
*> The lines of these two tables (too long for page width) are to be read
consecutively like two lines of text, not staggered as might be thought.
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
also the 9-month mean curves for Berlin and Copenhagen as com-
puted from the original data and again from the residuals after re-
moval of many other periodicities. I hope that this may be a step
toward promoting greater confidence in the procedure. But the curves
about to be referred to, representing other periodicities, will furnish
other grounds for confidence in these methods.
It has already been pointed out in the analysis of the original data
that the expiration of an integral multiple of 23 years from January
1819 is often the signal which warns us of a reversal of phase im-
pending in the temperature periodicities. As this also occurs fre-
quently in periodicities which are computed from the residuals which
remain after removal of many determined periodicities by 114-year
and 23-year steps, it would seem to indicate that the data were not
harmed by such removal. For it is to be recalled that the effect of such
removal, applying as it does the actual mean values over each 114-
or 23-year period to correct all monthly values within that very period,
must tend in the strongest way to smooth the residual curve which
remains after such removal. If then such a smoothed residual curve
shows plainly the newly sought periodicity, and not only shows it in
approximately the same phase at many intervals during a century,
but also shows the reversal of its phase at the critical dates, after the
manner often noted in earlier analyses—the combination of these
regularities of behavior seems to strongly support the hypothesis that
the computed periods are veridical, and cumulatively defends the
method used in their removal.
But still another type of confirmation of veridity is available. It
will be noted that in the list of Io periodicities which were said to
have been removed before seeking the 12-month periodicity, one of
9? months was mentioned last. This periodicity was not noticed in
the original data, nor was it suspected until after the 68-month curve
was determined. Then seven waves appeared so definitely in the mean
curves for 68 months, as shown in figure 18, that no question of the
reality of the 9%-month periodicity could be entertained. Yet the 68-
month curves themselves were not computed until after the entire
previous list of eight periodicities had been removed in 113- or 23-
year parcels. That the 9?-month curve should have survived so much
modification of the data seems to indicate that real and not spurious
periodicities had been found and removed. In order further to demon-
strate this argument more conclusively, I show in figure 15 the 9#-
month curves for Berlin and Copenhagen, both as computed from the
original data and as computed after nine periodicities had been re-
moved therefrom.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 43
D. CRITERION FOR TRUE AND FALSE PERIODICITIES AND LIMIT TO THE NUMBER
OF PERIODICITIES
If it were the case that in long intervals of time only very small
changes in phase and amplitude took place in the forms of the peri-
odicity curves, it would be simple as well as obviously indicated to
pick out, evaluate, and remove periodicity after periodicity until no
more of them could be discerned in the residual temperature depar-
tures. In fact it would have been done by meteorologists long ago.
But as we have now shown, this simplicity does not obtain. Although,
for instance, the 11-month less 3 days periodicity may be traced at
Berlin during times of low sun-spot numbers for r1o years, with an
average amplitude of about 0.°4 Centigrade, there are wide fluctua-
tions of phase and amplitude during that long interval. So the ques-
tion arises, if we are to admit that obscure causes produce reversals
of phase and wide fluctuations in amplitude, how shall we know if a
supposed periodicity is real or arbitrary?
The quandary is much more serious for long periods than for short
ones. During 114 years there are, for instance, twelve r1-month
periods and still more of 7, 8, and 9% months. If so many repetitions
yield, as we have seen that they do, definite smooth mean curves of
considerable amplitude representing the periodicity throughout these
abundant repetitions, and there follows an abrupt change to another
type which continues equally well verified through a second interval
of 113 years, the mere change of type, associated as Hale has shown
it to be with a reversal of the magnetic status of the sun, is not a valid
argument for the rejection of this otherwise excellent periodicity.
When, however, the longer periods of 21 to 68 months are in ques-
tion, the number of repetitions of them in 114 or even in 23 years
is not enough to eliminate irregular fluctuations, or to inspire much
confidence. For the mean curves are left very ragged. If no sup-
porting evidences were available, they would sometimes seem probably
accidental.
But let us take as a specific example the 68-month curve at Berlin,
as shown in figure 18, I to V. The following observations may be
made:
1. Each curve shows seven waves, indicating a periodicity of 93
months.
2. Removing, in imagination, the waves due to the 9?-month peri-
odicity, each subfigure shows a smooth curve of 68 months’ period,
roughly similar in form to a sine curve.
4
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
3. Each of the subfigures is the result obtained from 23 years of
observation, including four repetitions of the periodicity. Although
not a century, 23 years is, after all, a long time.
4. The ranges of the smoothed 68-month curves are substantial.
For curves I, II, III, IV, and V, the ranges are 0.°4, 1.°1, 1.°1, 0.°5,
and 1.°o Centigrade, respectively. The extreme range of the original
data before any periodicities at all were removed, but smoothed by
5-month traveling means, seldom exceeds 5.°0 Centigrade. This in-
cludes, as we have seen, several short interval periodicities of a range
of 0.°5 Centigrade or more, which when combined in common phase
may produce a range of at least 2.°o Centigrade. Hence much of the
original range disappears with their removal. This makes it apparent
that the 68-month curves contain a very considerable part of the
residual range remaining available to disclose long periods.
5. Each 68-month curve is the mean of four mutually supporting
constituents. As an example, comparing the constituents of curves
II and III, each of the four individual constituents in group II shows
positive departures at the two ends and negative departures at the
middle. Each of the four individual constituents in group III, on the
contrary, shows negative departures at the two ends and positive de-
partures in the middle. This behavior of reversal in phase, exactly
at 46 years after January 1819, is precisely similar to that which we
have many times referred to, relating to the short periodicities, whose
validity seems unquestionable because of the great numbers of repeti-
tions on which they depend. Thus the behavior of the 68-month curves
is exactly in line with reasonable expectation.
6. Corroboratively, the curves I, III, and V, covering (with two
intermissions of 23 years each) I10 years, are so nearly similar in
phase as to yield the mean form VI, figure 18. It has a range of 0.°6
Centigrade.
But why, the reader may ask, have so many periodicities additional
to those heretofore recognized in the variability of the sun been added
in the list of terrestrial periodicities, and why are they chosen as
integral submultiples of 23 years? The answer is that they are forced
upon our attention by the progress of the computations. One illustra-
tion has been given. As stated above, the periodicity of 9% months
was discovered because the curves for 68 months showed seven waves.
Similarly the periodicity of 34 months was discovered because pre-
liminary computations of the periodicity of 68 months (not here re-
produced) showed the half-period curves of 34 months too plainly to
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 45
|; un
(So)
2
mite.
e r
%
A
S i “a
2 A\-
mm [VV
Nal _| Z|
uy 5 /|
r
ihe coon
Fema cae
ppl YE wt
Fic. 18.—The 68-month periodicity in Berlin temperatu
0° .2 .4 6 8 OF.
eS eee
Saas
0°.2 .4 .6 .8 I°0C.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
IN wae
ee Ze
‘0 C.
Onze A6 oul
‘
7- MO./ PERIODICITY
4 ADELAIDE
11-MO, PERIODICITY
COPENHAGEN TEMP.
We IAS ‘ i
- 12-MO. FERIODICIIY
NSB S6 ra ea |
‘\
1842 - 1798 - 1930 ke
. ' a
wal ODD AND EVEN K
Has Talal fon 290 er
NOK COPENHAGEN TEMP. »%
WA 1798-1930 4
‘
Se
\
\ = U4
2
8-MO. PERIODICITY 93- MO. PERIODICITY 13-6-MO. PERIODICITY 21-MO. PERIODII
HELSINGFORS TEMP. COPENHAGEN TEMP. HELSINGFORS PRECIPITATION GREENWICH TE!
1830 -1930 1793 - 1930 1853 - 1930 1842 - 1930
eae Ss 3R2, 57H AND 7 CURVES an Bah: 1s, a AND 81 C
Ere: | cur
NO. IO
SOLAR RADIATION
AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT
[ae
|
ZC.
yal
v.
&
U
4
‘
i]
7 1
\
Xe
_y
Ae:
Ma
= 4 ==
h a7,
uw if ‘ ‘\
° 4 x
a a eS —_
¢ Pa \.
4 aS ra See
‘TL +" 92-MO. PERIODICITY
° GREENWICH TEMP.
SN Ds 1842 - 1930 x
I 157 CURVE INVERTED \
nN 7 = fe
; Fa s : ie
+ =
: COPENHAGEN TEMP. 1799-1930
>
34-MO. PERIODICITY
URVES INVERTED
Ia
af
y bd So
Cob
iy
8 OF
a
pial 4
= 46-MO. PERIODICITY
i CAPE TOWN TEMP.
; 1865 - 1930
a: — 24D CURVE INVERTED
55-MO. PERIODICITY
ADELAIDE PRECIPITATION
113 YEAR PERIODICITY
CAPE TOWN TEMP.
1865-1930
343 YEAR PERIODICITY
BERLIN TEMP.
1819 -1922
pees es ee SS ae ee
—({2eRaee
i
‘various stations.
ADELAIDE PRECIPITATION
1ST AND 38° CURVES INVERTED
68-MO. PERIODICITY
1842 - 1930
ce
47
ce eo t x
ot RMA 2 F Re
. .! Lie ee A tL ‘ o
ee ae, ee ees Merge Dene hon ne ey tO ahin Soh TREO A N ;
Ay CREEL Da i \ <.
we Wl Ad
uti
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 94
ACA
NS Eo ea |
pee uel Mead Ji a: ““92:mo.PeRIopIcy”~
aod YR KZ > as TEMP,
ee.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 47
—J
a
le
ee
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
a
=
oc
=H
=
a
Ni
46-MO, PERIODICITY
"JAIL | CAPE TOWN TEMP.
1865-1930
_ 20 CURVE INVERTED
/o
¢
o-*
\
‘
N
ey,
4
‘
\
‘A
Os aS i
H Se 7
Gp Mo,} PERIODICITY = aos
OR
js
s
lz YEAR PERIODICITY
CAPE TOWN TEMP,
1865-1930
a]!
Pa
‘
‘
mall
+}
Ao 1
4 ADELAIDE IM Ick \ _12-MO. / PERIODICITY We IE ne, 45 YEAR PERIODICITY
/ PRECIPITATION COPENHAGEN TEMA By, i,JEMP. oe \ ANY BERLIN TEMP.
1842 - 1798-1930 a 2 IN 1819 -1922
oo) (2a
| SZ seca
“eae ae
Napabescant eee
~ ps2 | Seen a Se
ieee ia
O00 AND EVEN SBIR @ 55-MO. PERIODICITY
25-MO, PERIODICITY ADELAIDE PRECIPITATION
COPENHAGEN TEMP, ,/\ aM 7}
S, '798-1930 4
A. | ee SS
4) a r s
.
|Z
‘oul
=
~~.
BY
Y
Bi
.
.
\
R! \
SS
A
XN
O72 44: 26:..6: Jor,
eK Ay
poe
—| | e >| 4
= ri
== V ry
2 ‘ c aa
5 an
tale “_%
a
oy
—
V
--~
¢
t <
/
Sen
i ! |
NS 4 4 +—— 7.0. Fe pit
MO. PERIODICITY -MO. PERIODICITY 13-6-MO. PERIODICITY ‘| | GREENWICN
ELS INGFORS TEMP. COPENHAGEN TEMP. HELSINGFORS PRECIPITATION 1842 cu
1830 - 1930 1793 - 1930 1853 - 1930
ee eee i
3R 5TH AND 77 CURVES INVERTED
)
4
68-MO. PERIODICITY
ADELAIDE PRECIPITATION
ad 1842 - 1930
1 AND 38° CURVES INVERTED
=x
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
be ignored." Similarly the periodicity of 13.6 months was disclosed
by five waves in the preliminary curves computed for 68 months.
But it is freely admitted that if only one station had been investigated,
some of the periodicities, especially those of 46 and 55 months might
have been regarded as doubtful. Much support for the veridity of all
of the longer periodicities is found by comparing results at several sta-
tions. In order to help the reader to appreciate the value of this sup-
port, I give in figure 19 some of the more convincing examples of
each of the 14 different periodicities which are accepted as caused in
terrestrial temperatures and precipitations by the solar influences
integrally related to 23 years. To save space in depicting so many
curves, certain special arrangements are made in figure 19, as follows:
In the periodicities of 21, 34, 46, and 68 months, certain curves are
inverted, as described in the legend. In the 25-month periodicity, odd-
numbered curves are given separately from even-numbered curves.
All of these arrangements emphasize the phase reversals already noted.
As amplitudes are large in the longer periodicities, the scales of ordi-
nates are diminished for them.
It is believed that if the reader bears in mind the abundant evidence
already presented, which shows that periodicities of 8, 93, 11, 12, and
21 months change phases and forms radically at the expiration of
integral multiples of 114 years after January 1819, he will be prepared
to accept as veridical all of the periodicities shown in figure 19.
Accepting this evidence as proving in general the veridity of all
of these periodicities because they are all so well marked at some
stations, and almost without exception in solar radiation, as shown in
figure 7, it seemed but a matter of course to compute them for each
and all stations, and for departures of both temperature and precipita-
tion from normal. All such computations gave more or less favorable
curves. Some curves covering short time intervals, had they stood
alone, might not have been regarded indeed as expressing a veridical
periodicity. But reinforced by the better curves representing that same
periodicity for the same station at other intervals within the century,
and by such evidence as is given in figure 19, even these less satis-
factory curves were acceptable.
If I am so fortunate as to have carried the conviction of the reader
thus far, he will perhaps still ask, why I have stopped with 14 of the
23 periodicities which are integral submultiples of 23 years, and
11 These two periodicities, 93 and 34 months, and also the 92-month periodicity,
were later discovered in solar radiation. (See fig. 7.)
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 49
whether there are not other periodicities not integrally related to 23
years. The answers to these questions will be found in sections 14-C
and 14-D.
C. RESIDUALS AFTER REMOVAL OF EVALUATED PERIODICITIES
Having evaluated and removed, in Berlin temperature departures,
after the manner discussed in caption 14-B, periodicities of 7, 8, 9%,
II, I2, 13.6, 21, 25, 34, 46, 55, and 68 months, mean values for
each 6 months were computed from the residuals. From these 6-month
mean values, periodicities of 92 and 138 months were sought. These
computations were segregated into groups covering 23-year intervals.
In both instances, groups I, III, and V showed considerable and
nearly similar ranges of the periodicity, while groups II and IV
showed slight ranges in opposite phase. These results are indicated
in figure 20. The respective ranges are as follows:
Ranges of Mean Values, Berlin
92-month period 138-month period
Eniemeatino hs lens tdlslewariclin acy cterlesiaicrresieleterciare Tec. 0:71;
lhny several Ge JOR Epal INVsossannoaacusooonpes o.40G: OnsGs
After removing all of the periodicities, including the two last men-
tioned, the residuals remaining were compared with the original
5-month smoothed temperature departures of Berlin as shown in
figure 21.
It is apparent that the range of the residuals shown in curve B of
the figure is very much less than the range of the original data shown
in curve A. The average amplitudes are in fact 0.°60 and 0.°90 C.
Careful scrutiny has not suggested to us any other periodicities exist-
ing in the residuals except perhaps the Bruckner period of 344 years.
This seems to show an average amplitude of 0.°6 Centigrade in the
residuals. For reasons explained at much length above, but by no
means exhaustive of all the evidence in our hands, I believe that all
of the many periodicities named above have real veridity, and that
the processes described in their evaluation and removal are defensible.
Further evidence, however, will follow.
Nevertheless, I am sure that statisticians, if they take a snap judg-
ment, will make the obvious remark that complex curves may be repre-
sented with much accuracy by a Fourier analysis of 14 terms, though
these terms have no physical significance whatever. For an example,
Dr. D. C. Miller has represented almost perfectly the profile of a
girl’s face by Fourier analysis in 30 terms. But I think great diffi-
2A
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NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 51
culty would be found in making a satisfactory Fourier analysis in
14 terms of the temperature departures of Berlin from 1819 to 1929
or in discovering by that method the remarkable reversals of phase
which occur at intervals which are integral multiples of 114 years
after 1819. Furthermore, I hope statisticians will be fair enough to
weigh carefully the arguments I have presented, and having done so
will suspend adverse judgment until they have examined what is yet
to follow.
Oo 1 2 3 4 5%
Fic. 21.—Residuals after removing periodicities, Berlin temperatures. Heavy
curves, original data, light curves, residuals.
D. ANALYSES BY INTERVALS NOT INTEGRALLY RELATED TO 23 YEARS
The periodicities employed in the preceding discussion were selected
partly because they had been found in solar variation, partly because
they seemed to appear in Berlin and other temperatures and precipita-
tions. But it will be objected by some who ignore the fact that we re-
peatedly scanned the curves, and sought all periodicities existing
therein, that there was no reason for selecting integral submultiples
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of 23 years as the assumed periodicities whose validity was to be
tested, or any particular time as better than another for departure,
or any preferable time interval for delimiting the tables. Such hasty
critics may suppose that any other periods or lengths of tables would
probably have been equally successful.
To test this objection, computations were carried through to test
for the existence of periodicities of 7$, 10, 12, 12}, 15%, 19, and 29
73 mo. 10 MO. 12 MO. 123 Mo. 152. MO. 19 MO. 29 MO.
DSS iS) SAC USS Tan he
S579NB13 579013513579 BI 7191 35 7 9 W 13 1517 19 2 2325 2798
7 = eee =
|
Ras
Seay
shoo:
val
(eee BIN
Fic. 22—Trials of periodicities not related to 23 years. Compare with figures
19 and 23.
months in the temperature of Berlin. These tabulations, like the
others, commenced with January 1819, but were arranged in tables of
10 lines. Thus they covered intervals of time having no particular
relation to the 23 years which previous computations proved to be
so important. The results are shown in figure 22.
With regard to the 12-month periodicity, this analysis differs but
little from that shown in figure 15. The first and second 12-month
curves in figure 22 cover about the same intervals of time as in figure
15. Also other pairs in figure 22, as the sixth and seventh, the eighth
ee
NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 53
ese 50a ey Eze Se !3 5 79 il 13 15 17192! 1 S 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65
aS Ee EES
ania
‘
-~— +
55-MO.
Fic. 23——Cape Town periodicities in temperature departures. Bracketed
pairs of curves each cover 23 years. For periodicities of 34 months or over
only one curve is computed for each 23 years.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
and ninth, and the tenth with the eleventh correspond, respectively,
closely to V-VI, VII-VIII, and IX-X of figure 15 in time intervals.
Hence, results were to be expected in these cases nearly parallel to
those previously obtained.
But as to the other six sets of curves in figure 22, there is hardly a
vestige of indication supporting the periods chosen, excepting for the
last three curves among the 29-month group. The similarity of these
three curves is indeed curious. In the 1o-month group there is the
nearest semblance to continued periodicity. Here it may be that a
case could be argued for a periodicity of 10 months plus 3 days. But
this would be 1/27 of 273 months, and would but add one more to
the group of nearly integral submultiples of 23 years, already discussed.
15. OTHER ANALYSES
Besides the temperature of Berlin, both temperature and generally
precipitation also have been analyzed with equal thoroughness at
Helsingfors, Copenhagen, Greenwich, Cape Town, and Adelaide. The
results were very similar to those already discussed for Berlin. The
dominating importance of the 23-year period displays itself quite as
conspicuously in these other analyses as in the case of Berlin tempera-
tures. That is to say, all the periodicities which seemed to be indicated
were nearly integral submultiples of 23 years. Also if the date Janu-
ary I, 1819, was selected as a point of departure, changes of phase and
amplitude occurred abruptly at multiples of 114 or of 23 years
thereafter.
As it is felt that the united evidence from these widely separated
stations is of great importance, excerpts from the results from various
stations are given in graphic form in figure 19. In addition, the com-
plete analysis of the temperature of Cape Town is shown in figure 23.
16. CONCLUSIONS DERIVED FROM ANALYSES OF BERLIN AND OTHER
TEMPERATURES AND PRECIPITATIONS
a. It is shown that 14 apparent periodicities may be found in the
smoothed temperature departures of Berlin and other stations since
1819.
b. Summing these periodicities and subtracting their sum from the
original smoothed departures, the residual departures at Berlin have
an average range of two-thirds of the originals. Similar results occur
in the other analyses.
c. Thirteen of the supposed periods are primarily attributed to solar
changes, and are approximately aliquot parts of 23 years, being, re-
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 55
spectively, some interval between 272 and 276 months divided by the
following numbers:
BOms45) 2659 255) 20 135) LL, 55) 055,45) sean:
d. The fourteenth period is the terrestrial period, 12 months, which
would certainly exist because no single expression of the march of
the monthly mean temperature or precipitation fits satisfactorily over
an interval of a century or more.
e. The amplitudes of the 14 periodicities vary with respect to each
other and also from time to time.
f. The phases of the 14 periodicities vary from time to time.
g. In a majority of cases the periodicities retain approximately the
same phases, and to a less degree approximately the same amplitudes,
through either 23 or 46 years, and then abruptly alter.
h. In a minority of cases abrupt changes in phase and amplitude
occur after a lapse of 114 years.
i. The 12-month periodicity is no exception to the general rules laid
down under g and h.
j. Almost without exception, when phases remain unchanged
through 23 years, such a 23-year interval begins an integral number
of times 23 years after January 1819.
k. The amplitudes of the periodicities disclosed in the temperature
at Berlin range from 0.°2 to 1.°5 Centigrade. As stated in another
form under b, these 14 periodicities combined account for about one-
third of the whole range of 5-month smoothed departures from the
normal in the temperature of Berlin. The amplitudes of temperature
departure periodicities at other stations are of comparable magnitudes.
In precipitation the amplitudes range from 20 to 300 percent. Here
also the synthesis of the 14 periodicities found accounts for a sub-
stantial part of the entire departures from normal in the 5-month
smoothed values. These are by no means as striking results as were
found in respect to the periodic features in the solar variation reported
in caption 6. But it must be remembered that the terrestrial effects
are subject to various disturbing intermediate influences, besides the
original solar causes.
]. Attempts to substitute some other set of periodicities, not related
to the 23-year interval, are conspicuously less successful either to
display continued periodic fluctuations or to bring to light any con-
spicuous regularities of behavior such as those stated under g and h
above.
m. Other stations as widely separated from Berlin as Cape Town
and Adelaide show similar results in temperature and rainfall with
regard to numerous periodicities approximately integrally related to
23 years, and governed in phase and amplitude by the lapse of integral
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
multiples of 114 or 23 years from January 1819. It is therefore hard
to attribute these similarities of behavior to causes not extra-terrestrial.
17. SUMMARY OF PRECEDING STUDIES AND THEIR GUIDANCE
Towarp THOsE WuIcH FOoOLLow
It has been shown that the sun is variable. Its variations comprise
numerous periodicities. These periodicities are so definite as to justify
synthetic forecasts of solar variation. Apparently, all the periodicities
in solar variation are integral subdivisions of 23 years.
With this background it seemed reasonable to attempt to trace the
effects of solar periodicities in weather. Analyses have been presented
of temperatures and precipitation at several stations widely separated.
The 23-year period is thereby found to exercise a dominating influence
in weather. Numerous periodicities which are integral submultiples
of 23 years seem to exist in weather. Nevertheless, changes of phase
and amplitude complicate these relations. But it has been shown that
these changes of phase and amplitude are apt to occur abruptly at
times which are integral multiples of 114 or of 23 years after Janu-
ary I, 1819.
These studies lead us to expect that many of the features in weather
which occur apparently unordered are really produced by the summa-
tion of periodic changes integrally related to 23 years. Hence they
will be apt to be found, though doubtless with considerable modifica-
tion, in successive 23-year cycles. There is ground to expect that
the similarity of such features will be greater after 46 than after 23
years. As these periodic changes seem to be of solar origin they should
be observable throughout the world.
We may also expect that phenomena which depend intimately on
the sunshine or the weather, such as the growth of vegetation, the
numbers of creatures that feed on vegetation, the flow of rivers, the
level of lakes, the thickness of varves, whether produced by the flow
of glacial rivers or by the summer dessication of lakes, all such phe-
nomena may display the influence of the 23-year cycle. In the re-
mainder of this paper it will be shown in how far it has been found
that these expectations are realized.
18. A TEST OF THE 23-YEAR HYPOTHESIS IN THE PRECIPITATION
OF SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND
In 1934, C. M. Saville” published a table of annual precipitation
over southern New England given as percentages of base values from
1750 to 1932. The values depend on reports from I to Io stations.
“ Quart. Journ. Roy. Meteor. Soc., vol. 60, p. 324, 1934.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 57
In the same journal” I have used Saville’s data to indicate evidence
for a periodicity of 22% years. I now incline to prefer 23 years, and
have some reason to trace a periodicity of 46 years as well as one
of 23 years. Accordingly, I have rearranged the data, omitting deci-
mals of percentages, as given in table ro.
These data are also shown graphically in figure 24. The first cycle
of 23 years is discordant. It is, indeed, almost the exact inversion
of cycle II. The latter is shown inverted by the dotted line on cycle I.
A similar, though less complete inversion occurs with cycle VII. For-
tunately, the cycles are in almost exact step with the important date,
January 1819. This adds interest to these inversions, which, as we
have seen, are apt to occur at integralmultiples of 11} years measured
from 1819. Noting the considerable similarity of cycles III, V, VII
as forming one group, and cycles II, IV, VI, VIII as forming another,
I have plotted in curve IX the mean of groups III, V, VII, omitting I.
In curve X, I have plotted the mean of groups II, IV, VI, VIII. Al-
though both curves IX and X agree in many particulars, and both
show a marked maximum at about the thirteenth year, they also tend
to show opposition in some minor features, of the type which I have
hitherto called, to give it a name, “‘ right- and left-handedness.” This
tendency is apparent even in the individual 23-year cycles, for they
show alternately the “left”? and “right ’’ tendency, corresponding to
a 46-year period superposed on one of 23 years. The range from the
first to the thirteenth year in the mean of group II, IV, VI, VIII is
+18 percent, and in group III, V, VII, +9 percent. Having com-
pleted cycle VII in the year 1933, and assuming that the average
march shown by group III, V, VII will now take place, we may expect
nearly Io percent more annual precipitation in Southern New England
about 1945-1946 than in 1934. Should group II, IV, VI, VIII prove
the more representative, then the precipitation about 1945-1946 would
be nearly 20 percent above that of 1934.
19. A LaKxe LeveL TEST OF THE 23-YEAR HyPOTHESIS
By courtesy of the United States War Department, Corps of Engi-
neers, a set of charts of the levels of the Great Lakes was obtained.
These charts were cut and pasted by the present author so as to present
23-year intervals superposed. These charts all began with the year
1860. R. E. Horton, hydraulic engineer, was good enough to send
me additional data covering nearly completely the 23-year period 1835
to 1859. This furnished valuable additional evidence.
Figures 25 and 26 show these data on lake levels. Figure 25 gives
original data for Lake Ontario. Figure 26 gives the march of yearly
7 Quart. Journ. Roy. Meteor. Soc., vol. 61, pp. 90-92, 1935.
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58
NO. IO
SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT
23 YEAR CYCLE
| = 7/ 9 iT 13 1S 17 19 2! 23
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1750-1772
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PERCENTAGE DEPARTURES FROM NORMAL
a
MEAN OF IL, IVY, WI, VII
. 24.—Cycles in the precipitation of southern New England.
Dotted curve is cycle II inverted.
59
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94 |
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UNITED STATES LAKE SURVEY
MONTHLY MEAN WATER LEVELS OF THE GREAT LAKES
From Official Records, 1910 to date.
oO
Fic. 25.—Levels of Lake Ontario, 23-year cycles. Note general s
61
ABBOT
AND WEATHER STUDIES
SOLAR RADIATION
IO
NO.
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UNITED STATES LAKE SURVEY
MONTHLY MEAN WATER LEVELS OF THE GREAT LAKES
From Official Records, 1910 to date.
idence g - ve
Note genet! bout the sixth year, also approximate repetition of features a, b, c, d.
Fic. 25—Levels of Lake Ontario, 23-year cycles.
= 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
means computed from the original data for four lakes. It is unneces-
sary to include Lake Michigan, for its level practically duplicates that
of Lake Huron. Some features, as the low levels of the intervals from
YEARS
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Fic. 26A.—Levels of Great Lakes, 23-year cycles.
about the fourth to the tenth year, are so conspicuous as to be striking.
This shows distinctly in all of the Lakes, but least so in Lake Superior.
It may be remembered in this connection that much of the drainage
into Lake Superior comes from far to the north and west in Canada,
NO.
O 0.2 04 06 08 1.0 FT.
IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT
me
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Fic. 26B.—Levels of Great Lakes, 23-year cycles. Note the marked
subsidence culminating after 11 years in the full curves.
63
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
where, at least in the last few years, the severe drought which affected
our Northwestern Central States was less severe, or even absent. In
the levels of Lake Ontario several minor features by which the yearly
ranges have been decidedly modified seem to be repeated each 23 years.
These features have been marked in figure 25 with letters.
It is especially interesting, in view of caption 14-g, that the additional
cycle for Lakes Huron and Erie furnished by Mr. Horton seems,
when studied in connection with those commencing in 1883 and in
1929, to indicate a 46-year cycle. The first and third, and so much as
has elapsed hitherto of the fifth 23-year cycle in the levels of these two
lakes since 1837 iridicate a much more conspicuous and long-continued
low after about the fourth year than do the second and fourth cycles.
It is not necessary to dwell upon the association which these figures
seem to bear to the drought in Northwest Central United States in
recent years. The inference, if the 46-year hypothesis is sound, is ob-
vious, and disquieting for the immediate future.
20. A FisHery TEST OF THE 23-YEAR HyporueEsis
Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the United States National Museum, suggested
to me that since ocean fishes live upon plankton, largely a vegetable
product, then if the weather is governed by 23-year cycles, the fish
food would probably be subject to related changes in its abundance.
Hence the fish population, as reflected by the annual catch, might
vary by 23-year cycles. On my application through the Bureau of
Fisheries, Dr. O. E. Sette was good enough to supply Fishery Circular
14, issued in 1933, and Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 1034, is-
sued in 1928, which give, respectively, the catches of mackerel and
cod taken since 1804. The catch of mackerel I read off from figure 1
of the first cited document. The catch of cod is taken from table 2
of the other.
Very great changes of scale in the mackerel catch occurred after
1816 and after 1885. In order to make the data fairly comparable, I
omitted values of the mackerel catch 1804 to 1816, inclusive, and I
multiplied the values recorded from 1886 to 1931, inclusive, by the
factor 3. Five 23-year cycles remained for examination. No distortion
of the 23-year cycles is produced by the alteration of scale at the date
just noted, because it occurs at the beginning of a cycle.
As for the cod, the catch reported was considerably smaller during
the first half of the nineteenth century than since. In order to make
my data more comparable, I omitted the years 1804 to 1811, inclusive,
and multiplied the values from 1812 to 1857, inclusive, by the factor
5/3 (again making the change of scale at the beginning of a cycle).
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 65
CYCLE YEAR FOR MACKEREL BASED ON I817
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
, ~ |
MILLIONS OF POUNDS
Ww
U
' / HNN
550 = (i SS
4 i] Y N soll
Hy) ' | i x
ik
500 aa
ea aT
MILLIONS OF POUNDS
i
4
&
CYCLE YEAR FOR COD BASED ON 1812
Fic. 27.—Catch of mackerel and cod in the North Atlantic, 23-year
cycles from 1812 to 1931. Curve for cod shifted in phase 2 years. Dotted
curves and dashed curves are means of cycles I, III, V and II, IV
respectively. Full curves are general means of all five cycles.
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Five 23-year cycles remained for examination, but they were based on
the year 1812 for the cod instead of 1817, which latter was the basal
year for the mackerel data.
The results are given in tables 11 and 12 and in figure 27. Asa
46-year cycle had frequently been encountered in weather data, I took
a mean of the first, third, and fifth 23-year cycles separately from the
mean of the second and fourth for both mackerel and cod fisheries.
As there is little definite support for a 46-year cycle in these curves,
I also took the general mean in each case. Thus three curves for each
fishery are given in figure 27.
The general mean range during the 23-year cycle for the mackerel
fishery is astonishingly large, from 16 to 40 millions of pounds. For
the cod fishery it is from 460 to 570 millions of pounds. The constitu-
ent cycles, as indicated by the curves of partial means, support the
general mean very well. Also when a difference of phase of 2 years
and a difference of percentage amplitude of variation are both allowed
for, as shown in figure 27, the two general mean curves are sur-
prisingly similar. As noted above, it will be observed that neither the
mackerel nor the cod curves show sufficient dissimilarity as between
the partial mean curves to prove definitely that a 46-year period is
superposed upon the 23-year period. Yet there are some indications
of it, as seen in the tendency to opposition at certain years of the cycle,
contrasted with the general fair agreement between the partial means.
TABLE I1.—23-Year Cycles in North Atlantic Mackerel Fisheries, 1817-1931.
Values Given in Millions of Pounds
Cycle Mean Mean General
— a — of cycles. of cycles mean
I 2 3 4% 52 15-355 2A, all cycles
6 Fi 41 33 18 22 20 21
i} 8 37 36 6 17 22 19
14 10 42 18 9 22 14 19
16 9 38 12 9 21 II 17
15 II 33 9 12 20 10 16
24 28 29 21 24 24 24 24
20 25 36 24 24 2 25 26
26 34 51 27 30 36 30 34
35 41 39 24 39 38 32 36
22 29 28 12 18 23 21 22
26 32 29 36 15 23 34 28
32 45 42 9 18 31 27 29
31 25 20 9 9 20 17 19
43 18 35 12 12 30 15 24
53 18 18 48 33 35 33 34
30 29 27 33 27 28 31 29
30 29 30 21 48 36 25 32
35 24 47 24 72 51 24 40
26 19 53 21 60 46 20 36
22 14 52 24 48 41 19 32
18 32 31 12 72 40 22 33
14 26 65 27 66 48 26 40
10 33 38 24 69 39 28 35
@ These two columns are three times their originals, as stated in the text.
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 67
TABLE 12.—23-Year Cycles in North Atlantic Cod Fisheries, 1812-1927.
Values Given in Millions of Pounds
’ Cycle Mean Mean General
-o—_—_—_—-—-- of cycles of cycles mean
1@ 24 3 4 5 T5355 2,4 all cycles
414 434 385 568 469 423 501 454
516 514 448 520 565 510 517 513
548 479 488 568 546 527 523 526
626 444 455 544 576 552 494 52
604 524 466 486 652 574 505 546
503 554 376 507 575 515 530 521
584 608 382 419 468 478 514 492
554 608 365 452 538 486 530 503
526 569 340 419 546 471 494 480
524 523 381 408 492 466 466 466
516 608 342 477 441 433 542 477
508 541 415 412 552 492 476 486
513 519 438 416 602 518 467 498
569 566 438 432 687 565 499 538
564 710 421 502 641 542 606 568
529 665 489 444 677 565 554 561
531 625 583 448 536 550 536 545
544 601 432 475 613 530 538 533
559 573 408 504 578 515 538 524
453 491 397 479 508 516 485 506
376 680 308 408 472 415 589 485
414 768 517 546 496 476 657 548
484 842 516 524 564 521 683 586
«@ These two columns are 13 times their originals, as stated in the text.
21. A TEST OF THE 23-YEAR HYPOTHESIS IN THE FLOW OF THE
River NILE
C. F. Talman, librarian of the United States Weather Bureau, was
good enough to draw to my attention to, and lend me, Prince Omar
Toussoun’s “ Memoire sur histoire du Nil,’ Cairo, 1925. Volume 2
of this publication gives an extended table of annual high- and low-
water stages of the Nile beginning with A. D. 622. A short com-
parison indicated to me that the low-water stage was preferable for
my purpose. It showed much smaller apparently accidental fluctua-
tions than the high-water stage. The earliest low-water records seemed
probably less accurate, for they too showed wide irregular fluctuations.
After about 1430 until 1839, the low-water stage records were unfor-
tunately fragmentary, so that these four centuries had to be omitted.
After 1884 the work of British engineers so greatly modified the
natural flow of the river that the records cease to be useful for my
purpose. Because of these several considerations, I limited my re-
search to a study of low stages of the Nile for 690 years from 735 to
1424, and 46 years from 1839 to 1884.
Figure 28 gives a number of individual 23-year cycles in the level
of the Nile at low water. It will be seen that the early cycles of the
eighth century differ from the two cycles of the nineteenth century
in phase, indicating either that there is a slight deviation from exactly
5
LEVEL IN METERS
68
9
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
YEARS OF CYCLE YEARS OF CYCLE
5 10 15 20 5 10 iS 20
W5 ln
1.0
735-872
12.0 10.5 bs
758-780
W5
\,
Ue 873-1010
12.5
781- 803
1011-1148
12.0 aT
804-826 BS |
=| 12.0
1.5
11.0
12.0
1839-1861
1.0
LOW STAGE OF THE NILE RIVER
Fic. 28—Low-level stages of the Nile River. Showing 23-year periodicity,
A. D. 725-1424, and A. D. 1839-1885. See description in text.
NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 69
23 years, or a mutation of phase due to unknown causes. But the in-
dividual 23-year cycles in both the eighth century and the nineteenth
century show much similarity. Fortunately, they differ but little from
being in step with the important date 1819. This adds interest to the
apparent inversion of phase shown by cycles 1, 2; 4, 5; and 5, 6 of
the early period. Figure 28 also includes five mean curves, each one
the mean of 138 years or six successive 23-year cycles. Finally curves
are given to represent the general mean forms of the 23-year cycle for
542 years and 690 years of observation, respectively. These latter
means are taken separately, because the 138-year period ending in 1424
seems to show a change of phase tending to approach the form of
cycles which prevailed from 1839 to 1884.
The general result seems to be that the Nile, before its regulation
by British engineering works, showed plainly the influence of the 23-
year cycle. During the 690 years preceding 1424, the average range
of the low level during the 23-year cycle was about 1 meter. The
extreme range of the original values during any of those centuries
seldom exceeded 2} meters, so that a very large part of it was due
to the 23-year cycle. Maxima and minima repeated themselves so
nearly in phase throughout the interval of 552 years from 735 to 1286
that the cycle can hardly differ by as much as I month from 23 years.
22. A TEST OF THE 23-YEAR CYCLE IN THE WIDTHS OF TREE RINGS
In the appendices to his “ Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth,” Vol-
umes I and 2, A. E. Douglass gives many tables of measurements of the
widths of tree rings from many localities. In volume 1, pp. 117-123,
we find two records of Sequoia trees, the first of I to 4 trees extending
from 1306 B. C. to 251 B. C., the second of 11 trees extending from
274 8. C. to Ac De 1910;
I have arranged most of these data in tables of 23 columns ad
5 lines, each table covering I15 consecutive years. Each group of
trees just referred to gave the same general type of result, namely:
At the first part of each Douglass table, where the rings are wide,
there is a well-marked indication of a periodicity of 23 years, as de-
termined from my tables of 115 years’ duration. But the amplitudes
of the curves diminish as time goes on. After two or three centuries,
when the rings become much narrower, the 23-year periodicity prac-
tically disappears. The same thing is also observed with the long
Flagstaff table, 1390-1911, found in volume I on page 113.
Figure 29, which contains but a few examples of my results, illus-
trates the preceding statements. It seems but a reasonable considera-
7O
FLAGSTAFF 1392-1506,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. 94
i>
SEQUOIAS A
1306-
ateeN
FLAGSTAFF Ae
43 |
NX
MEADOW VALLEY =
SAN Bi
119-193
ie
ERNARDINO
1931
BAK ORE
ae
aA_| LN
| ONE i974 4
foot
41,42
-TREES 39,40, Ne
\
DALLES 1765-1879
i =|
BOISE \ 1768-1882
=
50
CHARLESTON
1760-1814
PINE VALLEY
1736-1850
70
VJ
FLAGSTAFF
Saeed
Pane
Bae
Mn
IN
Ee)
my aa
Fic. 29—Cycles of 23 years in tree-ring widths. Average results of 115-
year intervals. Numbers indicate percentage ranges of mean values representing
I15 years. Note successive curves at Meadow Valley, Modern H, Pikes Peak,
and Windsor.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 71
tion that while a tree is young, with its roots shallow and but little
extended, the water supply on which growth so largely depends would
respond more directly to periodic changes in precipitation than when
the tree becomes very old, with a widely extended root system, possibly
tapping never failing sources of water supply at a considerable dis-
tance from its trunk.
With this view in mind, I have for the most part restricted this in-
vestigation of 23-year periodicity, and the illustrative curves to which
I shall refer, so as merely to present periodic changes in the widths of
tree rings from about 20 selected localities from which wide rings
at the top of a Douglass table led down in a century or two to much
narrower rings. In these cases it seemed most probable that his
measurements had to do with young trees.
Figures 29 and 30 give the results of these investigations. It appears
that in all of these cases, tabulations extending over 115 years indi-
cated changes of tree-ring width during 23-year cycles ranging be-
tween 40 and 120 percent, and with such definiteness of gradation,
from low to high and return, as seems in harmony with the idea of
periodicities of 23 years in the water supply on which the tree growth
depended.
In another investigation of this subject I have kept each 23-year
cycle by itself, but have combined the results from five localities in
southern California and Nevada. In that way I have determined indi-
vidually the march of four successive 23-year cycles from 1829 to
1920 as represented by the average thickness of the rings of about 40
trees from five separate localities. Figure 30 shows these results.
Not only is a 23-year cycle apparent, but many details are reproduced
with such moderate alterations of phase and amplitude as to give
reasonable certainty of the veridity of these minor features in all four
cycles. As remarked above, the amplitudes of these features which
compose the cycles tend to diminish as the trees grow older.
23. A TEST OF THE 23-YEAR CYCLE IN PLEISTOCENE VARVES
In a paper by C. A. Reeds,” he gives many pages of illustrations
representing the march of the thickness of glacial varves near the
Connecticut and Hackensack Rivers. Independent measurements by
Antevs and Reeds are shown. Continuous series represent the present
thicknesses of these varves resulting, it is believed, from annual
weather-reactions extending in unbroken sequence for nearly 1,000
years.
* Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1930, pp. 295-326, 1931.
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
W-——-
=
=a
aa
<a
oe
ie
H------}2>--------1---
1852 -18
=
mk
ge a)
a (a
~J
1875-1897
: fees
\ 23-YEAR PERIOD IN TREE RINGS
FROM 5 GROUPS, SO. CALIFORNIA
YEARS 5 fe) 15 20
Fic. 30.—Cycles of 23 years in tree-ring widths. Individual cycles of
23 years show features which are found preserved in the mean of four
cycles, or 92 years.
NO. I10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 73
The varves are supposed to have been formed as follows: During
Pleistocene glaciation considerable melting of the surface of the ice,
as well as copious rainfall, took place during the summer of each year.
This produced glacial torrents which scoured the sides of the glacial
valleys and carried down sediment. Settling occurred in the quiet
lakes which at the foot of the glacier intercepted the torrential flow.
In such settling the coarser particles reached bottom first, and the
finer particles were superposed thereon. The settling took place mainly
in the colder months after the melting had greatly diminished and
snow rather than rain fell, so that the turbulent streams nearly ceased.
In this way each year a layer of sediment was deposited, coarser at
bottom, finer above, and layer after layer formed as the years succeeded
each other.
Many thousand years have since passed. Many variations of pres-
sure, of hardness, of exposure, and of still other factors must be
supposed to have affected the thickness of varves, besides the warmth
and the rainfall, of which we are now to invoke them as the witnesses.
Hence we can not hope to find the 23-year cycle very sharply defined
in varve thicknesses. But it may be that by taking the mean values
over intervals of 115 years, covering five cycles each, as was done with
the tree-ring measurements, interesting results will appear.
With this anticipation I read off from Reeds’ plots the thickness
of varves for a continuous interval of 575 years, and arranged the
values in five tables of 23 columns and 5 lines each. In figure 31, I
give the results of that investigation. It seems to show that in Pleisto-
cene time, as now, a 23-year cycle in temperature and rainfall resulted
from the summations of the effects of periodic variations of the sun.
Eight crests which appear in the general mean seem to be present
almost without exception in very nearly the same phase in the five
constituent curves. The range of values plotted in the general mean
curve, F, is from 1.44 to 2.00, a range of 4o percent. The range in
curve A is from 1.02 to 2.22, a range of 120 percent.
24. A TEST OF THE 23-YEAR CYCLE IN EOCENE VARVES AND
TREE RINGS
Dr. Wilmot H. Bradley, United States Geological Survey, was
so good as to furnish me with several sets of measures of varves
and tree rings relating to Eocene times. These data included a con-
tinuous series of varves from the Green River formation, Parachute
Creek, Colo. They appear to have been formed by the annual ex-
pansion and drying up of a lake bed. These varves each presented
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
THICKNESS
TWENTY-THREE YEAR PERIODICITY OF
VARVE THICKNESS
CURVES (A-E) EACH IS MEAN OF 115 YEARS
CURVE F (ON DOUBLE SCALE) MEAN OF 575 YEARS
YEARS 5_| 10 15 20
F
Fic. 31—Cycles of 23 years in Pleistocene varves.
Average results of 115-year intervals.
VOL. 94
NO. IO SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 75
two fairly well differentiated layers, one rich in organic material, the
other in mineral substance. The measurements give the thickness
of each part, and I have also added them to give the total thickness.
Dr. Bradley remarks that “the organic-rich portion of each varve
represents the material derived from the plankton produced in the
lake each summer, and as the volume of the plankton varies directly
with the amount of sunlight and the temperature (assuming an ade-
quate food supply) it seems reasonable to expect a correlation with
variations in solar energy..... The mineral-rich layers consist
largely of carbonate, and therefore may also be expected to vary in
thickness with the temperature of the lake water.”
Figure 32 gives a 23-year analysis of these data. Five successive
cycles of the march of the total thickness of the varves are given,
and the general mean of them all, covering 115 years. In addition,
I give the general mean for the 115 years of the thicknesses of the
organic and inorganic parts separately. All three mean curves show
a similar march, including certain details. All appear to show not
only the 23-year cycle, but the approximately 114 year cycle as well,
though with alternately slightly longer and shorter intervals. The
ranges of the mean curves are about 100 percent.
Dr. Bradley also furnished measurements of the widths of the
annual rings extending from the center to the bark in a fossil conifer-
ous tree of late Green River Eocene age. There were 107 successive
rings measured. On arranging the data in 23-year cycles, they proved
inharmonious to this arrangement. On rearranging them in five cycles
of 214 years, the result shown in figure 32 was found. In this ar-
rangement the first two cycles are discordant, but the last three, cover-
ing over 60 years show a beautiful accord. May it not be that during
some part of the Eocene, lasting millions of years, the unknown forces
which govern the periodicities in solar variation acted more vigorously
than in other parts of the Eocene, the Pleistocene, or the Recent ?
25. A WEATHER TEST OF THE 23-YEAR HYPOTHESIS
As stated under caption 9 departures from normal monthly tempera-
ture and rainfall and 5-month traveling means therefrom have been
computed from “ World Weather Records.” These relate to more
than 100 stations in many parts of the world. The departures were
smoothed by 5-month traveling means in order to eliminate such rapid
and abrupt fluctuations as would obscure principal trends. Lack of
funds prevents the publication of these valuable data.
It follows that should the working hypothesis outlined in caption 17
be a true one, then such a series of departures from normal tempera-
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
LS Sy pe SI Tee ee aie za ce ey ee te). ai (ep WS Tile fs: i) 2)
Prva
N ORGANIC
HICKNESS
"A | MEAN INORGANIC ff
\J
1 inf 5 AA AA
oe |
=
—t
a
—+
|
g
|
att
Wi
Fic. 32—Cycles disclosed in varves and tree rings of Eocene age.
NO. IO SOLAR’ RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT WG
ture or from normal rainfall as just described must show numerous
features during any 23-year cycle which would tend more or less
strongly to be reproduced in each succeeding 23-year cycle. To test
this probability, the data on departures from normals of temperature
and precipitation for all available stations were plotted on sheets of
specially prepared plotting paper. These sheets were ruled in abscis-
sae to represent 276 months or 23 complete years, and in ordinates to
present 300 millimeters, or 30 centimeters.
As an illustration, figures 33 and 34 present the percentage precipita-
tion of Peoria, Ill., and the temperature departures of New York
City. Features thought to be common in successive 23-year periods
are indicated on the curves by letters. Principal trends are also to
be observed. A dotted continuation of the last line of the plot covers
the years 1934, 1935, and 1936. This continuation represents the
mean expectation as based on former cycles. As the features in
former cycles show considerable differences, such a mean can only
roughly indicate their future forms. The method of drawing the mean
which is the most probable expectancy may be clearly understood by
observing the faint construction lines above and below the dotted con-
tinuation. Similar continuations for 1934, 1935, and 1936 were drawn
before the events occurred, and may be regarded as forecasts for both
precipitation and temperature for over 30 stations in the United States.
A year having elapsed, the actual departures of temperature and
precipitation for all of these stations just mentioned were computed
and smoothed by 5-month traveling means. These observed results
for 1934 were plotted alongside of the predicted values for 1934. By
inspection the agreement was then classified as “ Excellent,” “ Fair,”
“ Half and half,” or ‘‘ Bad.’’ Under this classification the cities were
grouped as follows:
A. Temperature. ;
Excellent, 7: Eastport, Key West, Detroit, Salt Lake, Helena, Port-
land, San Diego.
Fair, 17: Albany, New York, Washington, Hatteras, Mobile, Nash-
ville, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Paul, St. Louis, Omaha,
Bismarck, Cheyenne, Denver, Santa Fe, Red Bluff,
Spokane.
Half and half, 3: New Haven, Galveston, North Platte.
Bad, 4: Charleston, Little Rock, Abilene, San Francisco.
B. Precipitation.
Excellent, 11: Eastport, Burlington, New York, Detroit, Chicago,
Duluth, St. Paul, St. Louis, Little Rock, North
Platte, Bismarck.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
78
‘si9}}9] Surpuodsa1109 Aq payszeUl JIB S9AIND [BIOAIS 94} UI SoINyeady Surpuodsasi0y ‘aaind po}jop ay} Aq passosdxa
pue ‘ejyep snorAsid wo. payoipoid gf61 ‘S61 ‘“PE61 sreax
(SS i” A
im
TIT “ett0og Jo uorjezdiso1d 94} ul afoAo aAeah-fz sy T—EE ‘oI
a RNs
wi Smeeieitvtras Serimat yee
ool oy
Ai ES ea
we WA
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fy
d
TIWWYON LN390d3d
O00) 2 8| 4) SOF.
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES——-ABBOT 79
Piaf af re
=>.
! )
! ! TNA | iY 9344
ireie Ht TA Acaalauies
A\ ion (a a Aa amc
Vell IP \y ee
a] es fo
W i aa eae
\f — | SSeS oe
eas | ee a |
Fic. 34.—The 23-year cycle in the temperature departures of New York City.
Years 1934, 1935, 1936 predicted from previous data and expressed by the dotted
curve. Corresponding features in the several curves are marked by corresponding
letters.
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fair, 11: New Haven, Albany, Philadelphia, Washington, Charles-
ton, Peoria, Galveston, Santa Fe, Denver, San Fran-
cisco, Spokane.
Half and Half,8: Key West, Cincinnati, Omaha, Helena, Salt Lake,
San Diego, Red Bluff, Portland.
Bad, 5: Hatteras, Mobile, Nashville, Abilene, Cheyenne.
In order to give the reader a fair idea of this system of ranking
these forecasts, I present in figure 35 a sample prediction and verifica-
tion during 1934 from each group named above.
As a further comment on the basis on which these predictions rest,
I refer again to figures 33 and 34 which show precipitation and tem-
perature departures arranged in 23-year cycles. It is observed, as
illustrated in figure 34 and as might be expected in view of caption
14-g, above, that frequently the resemblance is closer between cycles
separated by 46 years, than by those separated by 23 years.” Changes
of phase and of amplitude certainly exist between repetitions of the
characteristic features which comprise a 23-year cycle. These must
indeed have been expected in view of the discussion given above of
the periodicities in the departures at Berlin and other stations. Never-
theless, in the preparation of nearly 70 three-year predictions, above
mentioned, the conviction was steadily deepened that many features
may nearly always be recognized in successive 23-year cycles.
Owing to the great financial importance which these predictions
would assume if they could be regarded as trustworthy, it has seemed
improper to publish them until the lapse of another year, or even 2
years, shall have proved to what extent they may be relied upon.
Employing only weather data previous to and including 1921, fore-
casts have been made, first for Bismarck, N. Dak., in one continuous
interval from 1922 to 1932, and then by successive steps for Vienna,
Austria, and North Platte, Nebr., in 11 intervals of 1 year each from
1922 to 1932. These forecasts and their verifications are shown in
figures 36 and 37.
26. CAUSES
Evidence has been presented which seems to show that the radiation
of the sun varies in a complex mode comprised of the summation of
I2 or more periodicities, all of which are integral submultiples of
23 years. Corresponding periodicities have been traced in weather, and
several other weather periodicities have been found which are also
integral submultiples of 23 years. Inversions, or at least major changes
in form, phase, or amplitude, have been disclosed in the periodicities
© Compare the general swing of curves 2 and 4 in figure 34.
NO. 10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 81
JAN, MAY SEPT. JAN. MAY JAN. MAY ~ SEPT. JAN. MAY
/
/
t
U
+
/
‘
[pa ae Ree a eS
GALVESTON , TEX.
SALT LAKE,
UTAH
Ca
4
i
Fic. 35.—Sample forecasts and verifications. Dotted curves are forecasts.
Grades of results: A, excellent; B, fair; C, half and half; D, bad. Left, tem-
perature; right, precipitation.
VOL. 94
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 83
MEAN DEPARTURES: NUMBERS
FROM Rae AL=0.9°C. iN SIGN SAME, 72
FROM PREDICT.=0O. CL. “| SIGN OPPSD, 27
ix, . : ¢
DEPARTURES, MEAN; NUMBER
FROM NORMAL= 229 % SGN SARE '58
* | FROM PREDICT. A Sen OPPS'0,48
: inary UES
FY T FROM NORMAL =
FROM PREDICE = I. F
DEPARTURES, MEAN; hy NUMBERS,
FROM NORMAL=24 0% * SIGN SAME, 80 +
FROM PREDICT.=230% ; i a. i
ee ees
TRG cote
ree
a | es hee
Le FORECAST-~- —-OBSERVED —
Fic. 37.—Eleven-year forecasts for Vienna, Austria, and North Platte, Nebr.,
with verifications. Forecasts made step by step.
84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of weather. These are found to occur at integral multiples of 114 years
measured from January 1819.
These phenomena, if accepted as facts of Nature, propounded to us
several problems:
A. Why should the sun, a gaseous body, emit complex pulsations
of radiation which are of the nature of a fundamental and 11 or more
overtones? A violin string may do this, but why should a gaseous
sphere?
B. Why should the terrestrial responses to these pulsations show
changes of phase, form, and amplitude at intervals intimately related
to the fundamental period of 23 years?
C. Are the terrestrial responses of an order of magnitude reason-
ably corresponding to the solar impulses?
For question A, I confess that I have no suggestion to offer. I must
leave its solution to those theorists who may be convinced by section I
of this paper that there is a real body of facts which prove the existence
of complex solar variation.
As for question B, the most natural hypothesis is to assume that the
phases and amplitudes of the solar periodicities themselves change
from time to time at intervals related to 115 years. Solar-constant
observations are not yet of long enough standing to verify this. I have
therefore sought to find some helping clue in a regularity of behavior
regarding changes of phase among the different stations. In this in-
quiry I have compared the changes shown by the 8-, II-, 2I-, 25-,
and 68-month periodicities in temperature as presented by the various
stations Berlin, Copenhagen, Helsingfors, Greenwich, Cape Town,
and Adelaide. It seemed superfluous to examine the precipitation which,
as meteorologists are aware, is loosely dependent on temperature.
I have devised a sort of shorthand adapted to exhibit the results of
this comparison. It is shown in figure 38. At the left of each sub-
figure will be found the approximate dates of beginning and end of
each 114-year interval for which tabular computations of periodicities
were made. Under the names of the stations appear symbols which
are designed to represent the types of curves found during the
various intervals of 114 years. These symbols are five in number,
but may be combined to indicate that the first half of a curve is of
one type, and the second half of another. The symbols are as follows:
Numbers I and 2 are vertical and horizontal lines. They represent
inverted phases of curves of approximately the same form. Numbers
3 and 4 are lines inclined at 45° respectively to the left and the right.
They also represent inverted phases of curves of approximately the
same form, but of a form essentially differing from that represented
NO. I10 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—ABBOT 85
8-MONTH PERIODICITY
HELSING- BERLIN COPEN- GREEN- CAPE
rw
——
we
my
MONTH PERIODICITY
—_—Yv
erie
oa
nw
|
al we
46-MONTH PERIODICITY
==
Fic. 38.—Comparison of stations
|e ie eee 1)
FORS HAGEN WICH TOWN LAIDE
Il- MONTH PERIODICITY
HELSING- BERLIN COPEN- GREEN- CAPE ADE-
FORS HAGEN WICH TOWN LAIDE
ADE-
25-MONTH PERIODICITY
na
n——
—
ta
ie lr)
wwe
—w
eae
Aw
68-MONTH PERIODICITY
with respect to phase-change of periodicities.
Rel
Pika la
ES oe |
ogee tos
86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
by symbols 1 and 2. Number 5 is a zigzag line. It represents an inde-
terminate form of curve not similar to those represented by 1, 2, 3,
and 4. It is not intended to imply that curves 1 and 2 or 3 and 4 are
always similar in form as between representations of periodicities of
different stations or periodicities of different lengths. It is only im-
plied that all curves I and 2 within a single vertical column of the
same subfigure are approximately similar though inverted, and all
those represented as 3 and 4 within a single vertical column of the
same subfigure are approximately similar though inverted.
Owing to local influences, it was not to be expected that complete
harmony would prevail throughout all the subfigures. But if the
changes of phase and form in terrestrial periodicities to which ex-
tended references have been made, are due to radical changes in the
solar radiation, it would naturally be expected that similar mutations
of phase and form would tend to occur in all terrestrial periodicities
and all stations at about the same time.
Figure 38 seems to show that on the whole this expectation is fairly
supported by the facts. Though exceptions occur, there is a prevailing
tendency for inversions to occur in all periodicities and all stations
simultaneously. Thus, for illustration, at the years 1841, 1864, and
1910, reversals or at least major modifications of form occurred in
nearly all cases, and this also frequently happened at the year 1887.
It is believed that the exceptions are neither more numerous nor more
radical than might fairly be attributed to local terrestrial influences
affecting conditions differently at these widely separated stations.
If this conclusion is sound, modifications may well be expected from
the prediction I have ventured of solar variation for the years 1935,
1936, and 1937 as given in figure 7. For on that basis it is very
probable that a radical change in the phases or amplitudes of solar
variation, or in both, will have occurred about 1934, being 115 years
after 1819, and will greatly modify solar variation in subsequent years.
But yet this result might not occur, for at several epochs the terrestrial
periodicities appear to have continued stability for 23 years or even
longer, which might call for a similarly long-lived stability in the solar
variation, and no mutation of it in 1934.
As for the third query, C, let us restrict our investigation to the in-
terval 1920-1930, for it is only then that we have actual observations
of the amplitudes of the periodicities, both of the solar radiation and
the terrestrial temperature. In table 13 I give the amplitudes of the
periodicities expressed in percentages of the solar constant (1.94
calories per square centimeter per minute) and in percentages of
the absolute temperature of the earth, which I take as 290° Centigrade.
87
ABBOT
SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES
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88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The result of this investigation indicates that the percentage change
of terrestrial temperatures is from 33 to 96 percent of the percentage
change of solar radiation involved in corresponding periodicities.
It might have been supposed that since the earth radiates approxi-
mately as a “black body,” the relationship would be governed by
ae ae
Stefan’s law, R=o T*. In that case = r
the percentage temperature ranges to be only 25 percent of the per-
centage solar ranges. The actual figures deviate from this in the sense
of showing larger temperature ranges than would be expected. Yet
the discrepancy is not so great that one cannot entertain as an explana-
tion the contributing influence of indirect causes, such as cloudiness,
which might produce changes quite as great as the primary direct
cause, variation in solar radiation.
, and we should expect
SUMMARY
In the foregoing paper I have tried to present within moderate com-
pass a general view of an investigation started by Dr. Langley more
than half a century ago, carried on in recent years with the indis-
pensable financial, intellectual, and moral assistance of Mr. John A.
Roebling, the National Geographic Society, and others, and now ap-
parently reaching definite conclusions as to the dependence of weather
on the variation of the sun.
I am painfully aware that the limitations of space and funds, the
extensive mass of evidence on which I base conclusions, my own inept-
ness in its presentation, and the preoccupation of readers with other
concerns must all combine to prevent even the most interested of
readers from deriving that vivid conviction of the truth and importance
of these conclusions which is shared with me by those of my colleagues
and friends who are most conversant with the evidence. Nevertheless,
I hope I shall not have failed to convince the reader of the following
propositions:
1. The output of radiation of the sun varies, as proved by simul-
taneous observations at three stations remote from each other.
2. The solar variation, seemingly irregular, really comprises 12 or
more regular periodicities, which support successful predictions of
solar changes for years in advance.
3. The periodicities in solar variation are integral submultiples of 23
years.
4. These same and other periodicities which are all integral sub-
multiples of 23 years occur in departures from normal temperatures
NO. I0 SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER STUDIES—-ABBOT 89
and precipitations at numerous terrestrial localities. The inference is
that solar changes influence weather.
5. Changes of phases and amplitudes occur in these terrestrial
periodicities.
6. The changes of phases and amplitudes in these terrestrial peri-
odicities occur at integral multiples of 113 years measured from
January 18109.
7. On account of the integral relationships of the terrestrial peri-
odicities to 23 years, the weather at all stations contains features which
tend to repeat themselves at intervals of 23 years.
8. On account of reversals of phase of some of the periodicities at
23-year intervals rather than at 114-year intervals, some of these
features are more accurately reproduced at intervals of 46 years than
at those of 23 years.
9. Various phenomena depending on weather show the influence of
the 23-year cycle. Among those examined are the level of the Nile
River, the levels of the Great Lakes, the rainfall of Southern New
England, the widths of tree rings, the abundance of cod and mackerel,
the thickness of varves of Pleistocene and Eocene ages.
10. From tabular and graphic representations of departures from
the normal in both temperature and precipitation for more than 100
stations, the weather’ itself has disclosed many features which repeat
themselves in cycles of 23 years, and which though obscured by modi-
fications of phase and amplitude may support predictions of future
weather conditions.
11. Forecasts based on these relations having been made to cover
the years 1934, 1935, and 1936 for more than 30 stations in the United
States, these forecasts are fairly well verified both as to temperature
and precipitation in 1934.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 11
MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS
AND THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA
BY
ALES HRDLICKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology,
U. S. National Museum
(PUBLICATION 3341)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 18, 1935
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS AND THE
PEOPLING OF AMERICA
By ALES HRDLICKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. S. National Museum
CONTENTS Pee
IER OMIT CtION Me teem eT arr ae ke beater etahide wie A Re ee aie 2
Paes PeCul ations mane ee tenes aie Ware oe siavefene bors Sassi eee Se 2
Watermtheoriesm meres tere ae i cork ee fee eeiewiee ee ee a ene 5
Documentary and material evidences ccs. en sa. . <0 ocle oe ve antec sees 6
(hee Negroes, OruManien and (Pert. : sicysine.es o<'0 a oo a oceoleneeesee 6
hes acoamSam tans kirlllisepremeyscrsy tere succes auc sronsl Stores neo sxc ee 9
dihesskeletal@remainsson lower Calitorniaes 5+ soccer eeceeeeaneneene II
‘(hhesbuningandedunehbouskullshaascemeeee eee oeea ee cee oe reee ener 19
Other g-find Swans tect eee ae che cases hee Sane ee 20
IEATES tenth eC OLieS me tery aera eat aka rte ait eres ec ae 22
UC EAT Sc uea yep are sae eae MA cc cent AE CNS cot eaustas nic ids au eS 26
Mae “IWidkimesigme ” Gi IBolliiah, 6s4ccauaccaucaoccugsuseasr suena 27.
SET UERC UC Sameer ota Pet tener ane <rSueets cco iunk i slo Sucheeuataes ichawe alenenaae ee 30
DISCUSSION Pee PMR Aree eet pew tne lee bk oc Nn ee ee 33
MN UETLES area ete Rete RUE RI CUAL tis SN Eic Seen Nic abseil Gaaltabe, Gites ate iS utes Eee 33
EESSEETISTON MM PRT CTE Ie ee er ace Ce Saris Si ae Ob Wate ge gees 35
Culturaleremainsh eee ccicctte cooks sis eee aoe eee ea ese 35
ae Melanesians cine onthe Americas. ene sae cn ae na nemereeeeee fee 36
Skincare nosewanduothetercattines semen aie meena nnae inane 39
Mhesckulleandsthecskeleton meen .sttc-saee cis row sstle ne cee tac ne soe 40
Wdditional notes) cower | Califoriiiaies 4s o)1../20 4 aot va aes eee 4t
Physical characters of the Lower California aborigines............... 43
INCI Carell CEIO TIS re tars cae NEA Gertie erate cate ron tin Shiau hae ee faite Suh iowa 44
Moademimexnlorationtt sists wae suo se eae teach ei ee ee 44
Skeletalisremainsm eowenCalitornia) sensei eee nena iene ne 45
IRGESIBTODYS” hacks eatd cla ca SR at One ens uP Ne tC Com ora ENR rr et pee eo Sans 47
PAD O STA phiGmNOteST weve me serous ik ree ete ihe Sse re ee Ee tere 49
RIS ASCLLA MEE va TAC eas Cee Toone Sette] Ser IS aE en eneaas 49
(Gri iresn ta bis) ol bist cece chee eRe eRe Se ECR ERC aC eget Pea vr ae 49
WAZ CANTON Rope teil eee oraie ao AS Sade Bens Mio ea EN A he IR Fc cveraii isn a 49
Dixon) eae. APSO OR ORR NEE RCO MTEC TTT To Ne eee 50
LEBER ED ALENT Les cr cpa ACTOR PRET ER CDEC OCR era eae ot Ma 51
IN Ord OriSlc1@ Leleess cai ce ctians Se esas tenet Taye ee ee cr ee 51
ING CO! eater ere ye ere tear at er RR a ee td 51
TODAS Ee epee openssh eves claws homate A wrayaee uel See eee aioe ae ares es 51
IN Val TTC rammes Rpa ee ees cas ete cay etary Seep NARA SENT At Se, et oN Bie 51
Mettekeim emia sre tic toh ony he ti iata dele tepeieeetat eine ea een sate eee ei tangle 52
Piteratinem Citedemepn erie crt cra nar otic Ne crSate re ak Re eA hoops as oe sdats 52
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 11
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
INTRODUCTION
Speculation as to the origin of the American Indians dates from
almost the moment of their discovery. It dates more particularly from
the voyages of Vespucci, Balboa, and Magellan, which showed that
America was a new world with new people. These people, as is well
known, were taken by Columbus for the inhabitants of “ the Indies ”,
whence their collective name of “Indians”. When this notion was
shown to have been erroneous, there was a general effort to find their
derivation; and as there were neither traditions nor any other data
on the subject, a mass of opinions gradually accumulated.
The derivation of the American natives came to be attributed by
different writers, in the course of time, to one or another of practically
all the peoples of the Old World who knew navigation. Gradually,
however, most of the initial theories came to be dropped, leaving a
small but tenacious residue. Three main hypotheses remained. The
first was that the Indians were the descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes
of Israel. Lord Kingsborough, as late as the earlier half of the last
century, bankrupted himself trying to prove this contention; and
there are some who incline to believe thus to this moment. The second
opinion, fathered by many, was that America had been reached and
populated by various Old World peoples, of different racial origins,
such as the Carthaginians, the Norsemen, other Europeans, and the
Asiatics. This view gradually changed, on supposed cultural, mor-
phological, and especially linguistic grounds, to a form which will be
discussed later. The third hypothesis, upheld as early as 1635 by
Brerewood, was that the Indians as a whole were of Asiatic ancestry
and related to the Tartars and Mongolians.
It is the second theory, or that of multiple origins, in its present
aspects which is to be discussed more especially in this paper. It
postulates that more than one race contributed to the original peopling
of the American continent, and while conceding the main element
to have been northern Asiatic, would bring here contingents of ab-
original man from as far as Polynesia, Melanesia, and Australia. The
principal exponent of this thesis at the present time is Rivet, the
well-known and able French Americanist.
A brief historical review of the field will be useful.
EARLIER SPECULATIONS
A remarkably sensible opinion on the subject of the origin of the
American Indians is met with as early as 1590 in the book of Padre
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 3
Acosta, one of the best informed of the earlier authorities on America.
He says:
It seems to me very probable that there came in times past to the West Indies,
overcome by strong winds, men who had no thoughts of such a voyage.....
We may thus assume that the New World commenced to be inhabited by men
who had been driven there by contrary winds, as in the end happened with the
discoveries in our own times.’
But the presence of various animals on the continent that are also
known in the Old World indicated, Acosta believed, that the land
somewhere in the as yet unexplored far north joined or closely ap-
proached that of the Old World. If this were so, then it would be
easy to resolve the problem of the coming of man. He came not only
over the sea but also traveling by land. This journey, too, was made
without planning, little by little; and thus in the course of time were
filled the lands of the West Indies by so many nations, peoples, and
languages.
His conclusion is that man of the Old World gradually extended
his domain until he reached the New, aided in this by the continuity
or vicinity of land; and that, while there may have been different
ways of peopling the very extensive American territories, the princi-
pal and truest cause of the peopling of the New World was this con-
tinuity or nearness of its land with that of some part of the Old
World’
*“Assi’que me parece cosa muy verisimil, que ayan en tiempos passados venido
a Indias hombres vencidos de la furia de el viento, sin tener ellos tal pensa-
mento. . 2. . Assi qu podriamos pensar, que se commenco a habitar el nuevo
orbe de hombres, a quien la contrariedad del tiempo, y la fuerga del Nortes,
echo alla, como al fino vino descubrirse en nuestros tiempos..... Concluye
pues con dezir, que es bien probable de pensar, que los primeros aportaron a
Indias por naufragio y tempestad de mar.” (Pp. 67-68.)
*Los primeros pobladores de las Indias “passaron no tanto nauegando por
mar, como cammado por tierra. Y esse camino lo hizieron muy sin pensar,
mudando sitios y tierras su poco a poco. Y unos poblando las ya halladas, otros
buscando otras de nuevo, vinieron por discurso de tiempo a henchir las tierras de
Indias, de tantas naciones, y gentes, y lenguas..... El lineage de los hombres
se vino passando poco a poco, hasta llegar al nuevo orbe, ayudando a esto
la continuidad o vezindad de las tierras y a tiempos alguna nauegacion; y que
este fue el orden de venir, y no hazer armada de proposito, ni suceder algun
grande naufragio. Aunque tambien pudo auer en parte algo desto: porque siendo
aquestas regiones larguisimas, y auiendo en ellas inumerables naciones, bien
podemos creer, que unos de una suerte, y otros de otra, se vinieron en fin a
poblar. Mas al fin en lo que me resumo es, que el continurase la tierra de
Indias con essotras de el mundo, alomenos estar muy cercanas, ha sido la mas
principal, y mas verdadera razon de poblarse las Indias.”’ (P. 81.)
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
By 1607, the time of Padre Garcia, another of the older authorities
on the Indians, the opinions as to the origin of the latter are already
legion. He summarizes them under Io headings as follows (p. 12) :
Over the seas (Ophir, Tarsis, and others).
Over the seas, accidental (storms, winds).
Over the land, or where the New World closely approached the Old,
in the far north.
Carthaginians.
The Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
Other Semites.
Atlantis.
Europe: Old Spanish, Romans, Greeks, Phoenicians, Canaanites.
Chinese (especially in Peru), Japanese, Coreans, Tartars.
Autochthone; Egyptians, Moors, and other north Africans; Canary Is-
landers; Ethiopians (Yucatan); old French, Celts; English and Irish;
Courlanders; Troyans; Norwegians, Danes, Germans, Frisians; etc.
wom
COCONINO
Ll
Garcia’s own opinion is a sort of compound of all the above. He
says:
The Indians proceed neither from one nation or people, nor have they come
from one part alone of the Old World, or by the same road, or at the same
time, in the same way, or for the same reasons; some have probably descended
from the Carthaginians, others from the Ten Lost Tribes and other Israelites,
others from the lost Atlantis, from the Greeks, the Phoenicians, and still others
from the Chinese, Tartars, and other groups.” *
Others of the more noteworthy earlier authors who have ranged
themselves more or less on the side of multiple origins of the Ameri-
*“ los Indios que oi ai en las Indias Occidentales, i Nuevo Mundo, ni proceden
de una nacion, i Gente, ni a aquellas Partes fueron de sola una de las del
Mundo Viejo, ni tampoco caminaron, 0 navegaron para alla los primeros Pob-
ladores por el mismo camino, i viage, ni en un mismo tiempo, ni de una misma
manera, sino que realmente proceden de diversas Naciones, de las quales unos
fueron por Mar, forcados, i hechados de Tormenta, otros sin ella, i con Nave-
gacion, i Arte particular, buscando aquellas Tierras, de que tenian alguna
noticia. Unos caminaron por tierra, buscando aquella, de la qual hallaron hecha
mencion en Autores graves: otros aportando a ella, acaso, 6 compelidos de
hambre, 6 de Enemigos circumvencinos, 0 idendo cagando para comer, como
Gente falvagina: . . . . Lo que siento acerca de esto, es, que unos Indios pro-
ceden de Cartaginenses, que... . poblaron la Espanola, Cuba, &c. Otros
proceden de quellos diez Tribus, que se perdieron, . . . . Otros proceden de la
Gente, que poblo, 6 mando poblar, Ophir en la Nueva-Espafa, i Pert. ....
Otros proceden de Gente que viva en la Isla Atlantica de Platon. Otros de
algunos que partieron de las partes proximas i mas cercanas a la sobredicha Isla,
pasaron por ella a las de Barlovento, que estan bien cerca de donde ella estaba,
i de aquellas a la Tierra firme..... Otros proceden de Griegos. Otros de
Fenicianos. Otros de Chinos, i Tartaros, i otras Naciones..... 2 (2, Busy),
*Shows Latin-like words in Peru (p. 174 et seq.), Greek (pp. 191-192),
Phoenician (p. 253 et seq.).
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 5
cans include Milius (1607), Grotius (1642), De Laet (1643), Horn
(1652), Holm (1702), Charlevoix (1744), and Clavigero (1807).
They collectively add little if anything original. But the two last
mentioned, unquestionably the best instructed, though adhering to
American polygeny, each expressed independently a view on the
problem which deserves to be quoted.
Charlevoix (1744) regards the majority of the theories hitherto
advanced as “ purely chimerical ” and is of the opinion that
nearly all the writers on the subject have based their conjectures on such
ruinous foundations, or had recourse to such frivolous deductions from names,
customs, religion, and languages, that it appears quite as useless to try to refute
the same as to conciliate them with each other. (Vol. 5, p. 2.)
And a similar sentiment is voiced by Clavigero, who says (vol. 2,
ps 205):
There are authors who, in order to do wrong to no people, believe the
Americans the descendants of all the nations of the world. So great a variety
and extravagance of opinion is owing to a persuasion that, to make one nation
be believed to have sprung from another, no more is necessary than to find
some affinity in the words of their languages, and some similarity in their
rites, customs, and manners.
LATER THEORIES
Scientific work proper on the American Indian commences with
Linné, Buffon, and Blumenbach abroad, and with Jefferson and
Barton in this country. All these write on the subject toward the
end of the eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth century; and
since then there is a long list of students of man who occupy them-
selves with the problem of American origins. A majority of all these.
particularly those of this continent and who had the broadest experi
ence with the Indian, although well aware of the multiplicity of types
and tribal variation, incline strongly toward the idea of his general
north- and east-Asiatic affinities. Yet there were and are also other
notions, particularly among European anthropologists, who have had
less extensive direct contact with the Indian.
During the nineteenth and the present centuries polyracial theories
of the origin of the American Indians are advanced not only by
writers such as Coates and Baldwin, but also by a number of pro-
fessional scientific men, among them Quatrefages, Rudolph Virchow,
Rivet, and Correa. But the theories change and crystallize in new
directions. The hypotheses of European, north-African and western
Asiatic origins have practically been given up, but new ideas arise and
are strongly supported. Basing their beliefs on apparent linguistic,
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
cultural, and even some physical resemblances, the later advocates of
multiple American origins urge the acceptance of the theory that the
Polynesians and Melanesians, and even the Australians, participated
in the peopling of North and especially South America.
DOCUMENTARY AND MATERIAL EVIDENCE
The theories that will receive attention in this paper are only those
that relate to the presence on the American continent, aside from the
introductions through the white man’s agencies, of African or Mela-
nesian blacks, and of the Australians.
’
THE ‘“ NEGROES”? OF DARIEN AND PERU
The beginnings of the theory of Melanesian migrations into
America date far back. According to Pereira (1648), the first opin-
ions to that effect were to be found in Martinez, Ortelio, and other
early writers. He says (p. 21):
The extension, on the south or toward the Antarctic pole and beyond the Straits
of Magellan of the land of Patagones, is unknown; but it is held as certain
that, cold as these regions must be, they will be found peopled and continuous
below the frigid zone. And, we are told by Martinez, Ortelio, and others, they
join New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the outskirts of Peru and the kingdom
of Chile. Facilitating thus a transit, the population of and propagation in
America were not difficult.
With these old opinions regarding the Melanesians, there are also
some early references to “ Negroes” on the American continent.
The first to refer to this subject is Peter Martyr, who, writing
within 3 years after the discovery of the Pacific by Balboa and using
information from letters received from the Isthmus, includes the
following unaccredited passage in his Thyrde Decade:
There is a region not past two dayes iourney distant from Quarequa, in which
they founde only blacke Moores [in the original Latin text ‘“ Nigritos”]; and
those excedynge fierce and cruell. They suppose that in tyme paste certeyne
blacke mores sayled thether owt of Aethiopia to robbe: and that by shippewracke
or sume other chaunce, they were dryuen to those mountaynes. The inhabitantes
of Quarequa lyue in continuall warre and debate with these blacke men. (Dec. 3,
Hbsetp.130:)-
® According to Lehmann the Latin text reads: “ Mancipia ibi negra repererunt,
ex regione distante i Quaréqua dierum spatio tantum duorum, quae solos gignit
Nigritos, et eos feroces atque admodum truces. Ex Aethiopia putant traiecisse
quondam latrocinii causa Nigritos, inque illis montibus naufregatos fixisse
pedem.” (P. 330.)
NOs Tt MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 7
The same “ blacks” are later (1552) referred to by Gomara, who
says:
In Cuareca Balboa found neither bread nor gold..... Instead he found
some Negro slaves of the lord. He asked whence they had them but they
could not tell him or understand more than that there were men of that color
nearby with whom they carried on regular war. These were the first Negroes
seen in the Indies and I believe there were seen no more.°
Apparently the same “ blacks” are also referred to by Gutiérrez,
who, however, gives this version:
In the pueblo Quareta were found two fine Negroes, slaves of sefior Thoreca,
who were said to have come here in balsas from the west from the south sea
that at present is known as New Guinea.’
Oviedo, the first official historian of the newly discovered parts of
America, who wrote earlier (1535-) than Gomara and who reached
Darien personally within less than a year of Balboa’s journey across
the isthmus, spent a large part of his life in those regions and had
direct contacts there with the Indians. He used what Balboa himself
had written, consulted with him, and was intimately acquainted with
the experiences of the other Spaniards who during his sojourn at
Darien overran and exploited the territory. He gives much more
numerous details about the natives than does Gomara, but in his
account of the events at Darien (Lib. 29) has nothing whatever to
say about any Negroes. There is no allusion to such people in the
published accounts of any of the other Spanish officials and priests
who were then or later in that region.
There is no doubt, of course, that the Darien Indians had slaves
or serfs. Oviedo gives interesting and possibly significant information
on this point. Speaking of the chiefs of some of the Darien tribes he
tells us that:
And the same caciques gave the Spaniards some Indians whom they hold
among themselves as slaves, who serve them, and whom they have captured
in war that is never wanting among the Indians. They call these slaves paco,
and each cacique has his slaves branded by a different sign on the arm or face,
®In Cuareca (Isthmus of Panama) Balboa “no hallé pan ni oro, que lo habian
alzado antes de pelear. Empero hallé algunos negros esclavos del sefior. Pre-
gunté de donde los habian, y no le supieron decir o entender mas de que habia
hombres de aquel color cerca de alli, con quien tenian guerra muy ordinaria.
Estos fueron los primeros negros que se vieron en Indias, y aun pienso que no
se han visto mas.” (Vol. 1, chap. 62, p. 143.)
7“En el pueblo de Quareta se hallaron dos negros finos, esclauos del sefior
Thoreca, que sefialaron auer venido alli en balsas de hazia el poniente por esta
mar del Sur que oy dia se llama la Nueua Guinea.” (Vol. 4, chap. 66, p. 573,
quoted by Lehmann, p. 331.)
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
while some mark them by extracting one of their front teeth. Also, the caciques
and their subjects paint themselves, and their devices and inventions in this
respect are much different from those that they use for their slaves.*
,
The reports of “blacks” in the Panama territory fail also of any
corroboration by later writers. In 1901 Vergara y Velasco states that,
according to a report of a subchief, there existed in the Cuna district
of Darien, until 10 years before, “ remnants of an aboriginal popu-
lation of reduced height, black skin, not exceeding 100 or 200 indi-
viduals and entirely savage ”’;* but as this applies to something existing
(if such was the case) nearly four centuries after the introduction of
the Negro into the Spanish American possessions, it can at best have
but little bearing on the subject under discussion.
Nevertheless, the reports.on the Darien “blacks ”’ are evidently
taken for facts by De Quatrefages, one of the foremost European
anthropologists of his time. As early as 1861, in his “ Unité de l’espece
humaine”, Quatrefages says (p. 405) :
Study of the physical characters leads, hence, to the admission that America
has been peopled by emigrants from the Old World and belonging more or
less to the three principal races of the same, namely, the white, the yellow, and
the black.
On page 413 he refers to the “ Negroes ” spoken of by Martyr and
Gomara. The above thought involves only the African Negro, but
in time Quatrefages’ view extends. One of the main though not
immediate causes of this is the discovery of the Lagoa Santa type of
skulls in South America.
Lehmann adds to the above one or two references (p. 331) from
hazy legends of pre-Columbian Peru on black-skinned prisoners or
slaves; he mentions further the paintings on two pieces of pottery
found in the vicinity of Trujillo and pictured by Wiener, which show
“ dark-colored people who are driven by light-colored ones ”’ building
8“ VY los mismos caciques daban a los espafioles algunos indios que entre ellos
tienen por esclavos, y se sirven dellos, que los han avido en la guerra, la qual
nunca falta entre los indios unos con otros y al ques esclava llamanle paco, y
cada cacique tiene sus esclavos herrados con su sefial diferengiada en el braco
6 en la cara, y algunos tienen por sefial sacarle al esclavo un diente de los
delanteros de la boca. Tambien los caciques se pintan a si y a sus indios y gente,
y tienen sus divisas é invenciones de pinturas para esto de otra manera, muy
diferenciadas de las que usan poner a los esclavos.” (Vol. 3, lib. 29, cap. 2, p. 8.)
*“ Seetin informes de uno de sus prinzipales jefes, en esas montafias existian
hace diez afios restos de una poblacion aborigen, de reducida talla, negra la piel,
muy escasa en numero (100 a 200) y enteramente salvaje; referia que los Cuna-
cunas quitaron a ese pueblo el terreno que hoy ocupan despues de una gran
matanza y temen encontrar a alguno dellos que quedaron por creerlos hechiceros
y hasta demonios.” (Vol. 1, p. 878; quoted by W. Lehmann, p. 331.)
NO Te MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 9
in one case a wall of stones, in the other a wall of bricks. All this,
as well as what will follow on the subject of “blacks” in North
America, will receive consideration in the critical part of this paper.
THE LAGOA SANTA SKULLS
In 1835-44, in certain caves of the state of Minas Geraes, Brazil,
and in association with the bones of extinct as well as still living
animals, P. W. Lund, a noted Danish naturalist, found a series of
remains of human skeletons.”
These remains included 17 or 18 more or less imperfect skulls, one
of which came to be preserved in the Historical and Geographical
Institute of Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, one—of a child—in the British
Museum, and the rest in Copenhagen. They are commented upon, as
far as their racial features are concerned, thus by Lund himself
(1844) :”
If we consider these remains of man from the standpoint of the ethnographic
traits which they present, we shall see that all the skulls bear the distinctive
features of the American race..... The race which occupied this part of
the world in remote antiquity was in its general type the same as that which
inhabited the country at the time of the discovery by the Europeans.
In 1876 the skull preserved in Rio de Janeiro is described by
Lacerda and Peixoto. Their main conclusion is (pp. 72-73), that
the fossil cranium of Lagoa Santa “ closely approaches in its charac-
teristics the crania of the Botocudos.”
In 1879, on the occasion of the Anthropological Congress in Mos-
cow, Quatrefages presents a communication dealing with the Lagoa
Santa discoveries and the Lacerda and Peixoto report on one of the
skulls from the cave of Sumidouro. In discussing the characteristics
of this skull * he calls especial attention to its height. His statements
in this connection could not be more explicit, yet in course of time
they have been so abused that they deserve to be quoted in full. They
are as follows:
By the union of dolichocephaly and hypsistenocephaly the skull of Lagoa
Santa approaches in a very unexpected way the skulls of divers other races,
and particularly those of the Papuans. The two characteristics are even more
accentuated in it than in the average of the Melanesians so well studied by
Wile dalevooie go 6 In calling attention to these resemblances I intend in no
” For a detailed account of these remains see Hrdlicka (1912).
“Tn his important communication to C. C. Rafn, Secretary of the Société
Royal des Antiquaires du Nord. See Lund in Literature Cited.
2 The principal measurements of the specimen, which belonged to a male of
about 30 years of age, are given thus: Capacity, 1388 cc; diam. ant.-poster.,
18.5 cm; transverse max., 12.9 cm; “ vertical”, 14.5 cm; C. I., 69.7.
Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
way to draw a conclusion as to identity, nor even to a closeness of the races.
Their dimensions in the skulls which I compare do not approach each other ex-
cept in result of the reached compensations. Thus in the Papuans a plane pass-
ing from the anterior alveolar border and external occipital protuberance leaves
beneath it only a very small portion of the occipital bone. This is different in
the skull of Lagoa Santa, in which the inferior occipital region bulges con-
siderably. It is the exceptional development of this portion which compensates
for the lowering of the vault and gives to the skull its great height.”
To which Quatrefages adds:
In taking here ‘the Papuan head for comparison, I do not intend to establish
any ethnological relation between the man of Sumidouro and the inhabitants
of New Guinea. Hypsistenocephaly is found also in the African Negroes and
among the Malaysian populations, but at the moment when I wrote the present
memoir, the Papuans were the only ones whose craniological study had been
finished. This is why I believed it interesting to point out the characteristics
possessed in common by these two human groups so distant in space and in
time.*
Notwithstanding Quatrefages’ clear and most sensible statements,
a “ Melanesian” suggestion has been made and will insistently be
used by later authors in support of their theories.
The next to discuss the Lagoa Santa crania is the anatomist and
anthropologist Kollmann (1884). After a study of 11 of the speci-
mens at Copenhagen, his conclusions, so far as the characteristics of
the skulls are concerned, are that—
howsoever valuable all these individual features established by means of crani-
ology are, much more significant still is the fact, which must impress itself
%“ Dar la réunion de la dolichocéphalie et de l’hypsisténocéphalie, la tete
de Lagoa-Santa se rapproche d’une maniére assez inattendue des tétes de divers
autres races et en particulier des tétes papouas. Les deux caractéres sont
méme plus accusés chez elle, que chez la moyenne des Mélanésiens si bien
étudiés par M-r Hamy..... En signalant ces ressemblances, je n’entends
nullement conclure a une identité, ni méme a un voisinage des races. Les chiffres
précédents ne se rapprochent que par suite des compensations établies dans
les tétes que je compare. Ainsi chez les Papouas un plan passant par le
bord alvéolaire antérieur et la protuberence occipitale externe, ne laisse au
dessous de lui qu’ une trés faible portion de l’occipital. Il en est autrement dans
le crane de Lagoa-Santa, ot! la région occipitale inférieure se renfle consider-
ablement. C’est le dévelopement exceptionnel de cette partie qui compense le
surbaissement de la voute et donne au crane sa grande hauteur.” (Pp. 329-330.)
“En prenant ici la téte papouas pour terme de comparaison, je n’entends
établir d’ailleurs aucun rapport ethnologique entre l’homme du Sumidouro et
les habitants de la Nouvelle Guinée. L’hypsistenocéphalie se retrouve chez les
négres africains, chez les populations malaisiennes, mais au moment, ot je
redigeais le mémoire actuel, les papouas étaient les seuls dont l'étude crani-
ologique fut terminée. Voila pourquoi j’ai cru interessant de signaler la com-
munauté de caractéres existant entre ces groupes humains si distant dans
l’espace et dans le temps.” (Footnote 2, p. 320.)
INO oy et MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA Tate
upon everyone, that the skulls from Lagoa Santa have the character of Ameri-
can crania, the racial features of the still-living Indians. (Pp. 198-1909.)
In 1885 a succinct report on his study of the whole collection of
the Lagoa Santa crania preserved at Copenhagen is published by
Ten Kate. After showing that these skulls are not as uniform as
has been represented by Kollmann, who did not study quite all the
specimens, the author says:
I accept willingly the view that the skulls of Lagoa Santa offer close analogies
with other American series, notably with the Botocudos and natives of Lower
Calitormay (CR 2135)
The year 1888 sees the publication by the Lund Museum of a
volume of the Danish studies on the Lagoa Santa remains, and this
includes communications on the human bones by Ltitken and Hansen.
Lutken, in an excellent exposition of the subject, is justly skeptical
as to the great antiquity of the remains and avoids all speculation
as to their racial affinities. In the same volume, however, Hansen
publishes an exhaustive study of the Lagoa Santa human skeletal
remains that are preserved in Copenhagen, and though he has no
Melanesian materials for comparison, he accentuates Quatrefages’
suggestion as to the resemblance of the Lagoa Santa skulls and bones
to those of the Papuans. He says: The type of the skulls “ corre-
sponds perfectly to the Papuan type, a fact already announced by
M. de Quatrefages in connection with the skull of Rio, but still more
pronounced when one considers the whole series ”; and, “ The bones
of the limbs indicate a small or medium stature but robust [body], a
new resemblance with the Papuans.” ”
Meanwhile, some especially interesting discoveries, which eventually
give the theory of Oceanic blacks in America a certain standing,
are reported from Lower California.
THE SKELETAL REMAINS OF LOWER CALIFORNIA
The finds in Lower California were initiated in 1883 by the visit
to that region of one of the foremost students of the American natives
of the latter part of the past century, Dr. Ten Kate. Part of the
results of this trip was the collection, from caves on the island of
Espiritu Santo and the neighboring coast, of seven skulls and a small
series of other parts of the skeleton. In the caves the bones lay
®“ Ce type correspond parfaitement au type Papou, fait déja signalé par
M. de ‘Quatrefages pour le crane de Rio, mais encore plus prononcé si l’on
regarde toute la série au lieu de la seule piéce qu'il conntt..... Les os des
membres indiquent une stature petite ou moyenne mais trés forte, ressemblance
nouvelle avec les Papous.” (P. 36.)
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
either free and mixed on the floor or were inhumed at but a slight
depth from the surface. These remains were reported upon in 1884.
The main feature of the skulls is the exceptionally narrow and high
vault. In various respects they resemble the skulls of the Melanesians,
though they are even more dolichocephalic, but in others they resemble
those of some American Indians. Ten Kate says further: “I have
nothing in my collection of Lower California that would remind me
of more or less Melanesian types in the living. All the individuals I
saw had the characteristics of the various mixbloods and Indians that
are found in Mexico in general.” * To which he adds: The old
authors, speaking of the Indians of the Peninsula, say that “ these
much resembled other ‘ Mexicans’, and that there were large differ-
ences in stature and skin color. . . . . I have seen but two individuals
reputedly legitimate Indians, an old lady who was of a noted Indian
type such as may be found in almost any part of Mexico”’, and a man,
of uncertain derivation. And if these two were Indians, “ then surely
there are still to the south of La Paz many Indians, such as those
I met on the road and who call themselves ‘ gente de razon’ and con-
sequently Catholics, who presented Indian types much more marked
than those of the above two individuals.”
The main conclusions of Ten Kate in this article (1884) have been
so misrepresented that they must here be quoted in the original.
They are:
1. Il existait, dans la partie australe de la presqu’ile californienne et les iles
de la cOte avoisinante, une race indigéne dont le cractére le plus frappant est
la réunion de la dolichocéphalie et I’hypsisténocéphalie ;
2. Cette race se rapproche d’une coté des Mélanésiens; d’un autre coté,
des races américaines se rapprochant le plus de la race dolichocéphale dont
le type de Lagoa Santa est le représentant le plus ancien;
3. La race de la presqu’ile de la dite morphologie céphalique était d’une
taille un peu au-dessus de la moyenne (1™, 65 environ). (Pp. 568-569).
In 1887 Ten Kate published in Mexico a second and similar paper
on the anthropology of Lower California. After giving the measure-
ments of the seven skulls dealt with in his earlier report, and of some
**“ Je n’ai rien dans mes souvenirs de la basse Californie qui me rappelle des
types plus ou moins mélanésiens observés sur le vivant. Tous les indivdus
que j’ai vus avaient les traits de métis et d’Indiens si variés que l’on trouve
au Mexique en général.”
*““ Plusieurs de ces caractéres se trouvent plus ou moins prononcés sur des
cranes mélanésiens et a en juger d’aprés l’impression générale de notre série,
on croirait avoir affaire a des Mélanésiens. .... Les auteurs anciens ne nous
décrivent pas le type des Péricués en particulier, mais bien celui des Indiens
de la péninsule en général. Ils disent qu’ils ressemblent beaucoup aux autres
“Mexicains’ et qu'il y avait de grandes différences de taille et de couleur de
la peau. Baegert a observé évidemment l’oeil bridé chez les Guaycuri.”
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 13
bones, he says once more: “‘ Many of these characters of the skulls
are encountered, more or less marked, in Melanesian skulls, and to
judge from the general impression of our series it might be believed
that we were dealing with Melanesians.”’ However, (p. 14) “if on
one hand our Californian skulls offer similarities with the Melanesians,
on the other they possess similar characters with those of certain
American series”, especially such as those of the Botocudo, the
Patagonians, and the ancient Lagoa Santa group.
In 1888 Ten Kate publishes in Science an excellent critique of
the paper in which Dr. Brinton attempted to deny the Mongoloid
affinity of the American Indians. In this critique, based on extensive
personal observations among both the North and the South American
tribes, he unequivocally asserts his conviction of such an affinity,
and has no word to say about the possibility of any other racial con-
stituents on the continent.
In 1887 and 1889 the field is entered, once more, by Quatrefages.
In these years he publishes two volumes on the “ Histoire générale
des races humaines’’. In the first volume (1887) he makes no refer-
ence to any Melanesian element in the region of Lagoa Santa or
anywhere else in South America, but believes (pp. 145-146) that
the Melanesian Negroes ‘‘ have reached on one side Easter Island
and on the other even California”. His map of human migrations in
the Pacific (opp. p. 144) fails also to show any oceanic human stream
advancing beyond Easter Island toward South America. In the
second volume, however, published in 1889, there are a number of
references to Melanesian elements in the New World. So far as
South America is concerned, but little is said in this connection, and
that little is very vague or even negative ; but there are some positive
statements as to California.
On page 308 of this volume we read: The characteristics of the
Lagoa Santa skulls “might make us think that the fossil race of
Brazil belonged to the Negro type. But in the special memoir which
I have devoted to the subject I have already stated that such an ap-
proach should be discarded.” “ He adds in the next paragraph:
In reality, among the present populations there are those that have preserved
in a remarkable manner the craniological type of Lagoa Santa and are evidently
18“ Tes recherches encore inédits, que M. Hansen a bien voulu me com-
muniquer, il résulte que la race américaine de Lagoa-Santa est bien décidément
a la fois dolichocéphale et hypsisténocephale. En outre, la phototype que nous
devons a MM. Lacerda et Peixoto nous la montre comme presentant un
prognathisme trés accusé. Au premier abord, la réunion de ces trois caractéres
pourrait faire penser que la race fossile du brésil se rattachait au type negre.
Mais dans le mémoire spécial que je lui ai consacré, j’ai déja signalé ce rap-
prochement comme devant étre écarté.”
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
representatives, at times but very little admixed, of this race. But none of these
resemble the Negro in the general aspect, in color, in the hair, etc., while a
large quantity of evidence shows them by all the external characteristics to be
very close to certain of the yellow races.”
Struck by the resemblance of the dolicho-hypsistenocephalic skull
type to that of the Eskimo, Quatrefages suggests that “the race of
Lagoa Santa, as far as can be judged from the data we possess, might
be considered as a simple group of the Eskimoid family.” ”
Other references to the Oceanic blacks in this volume are as follows:
The blacks played but a small role in the constitution of the American
races.”
The arrival of the Papuans in New Zealand and especially in Cali-
fornia was incidental and
due, very probably, to some accident on the seas, to the carrying away of some
canoes by the currents of New-Holland or the Kouro Sivo.”
In Malaysia, the black element, so easy of recognition when pure, shows
its intervention even after much crossing. In America, this element has dis-
appeared everywhere, except in a very few and circumscribed localities.”
The three fundamental types of humanity [white, yellow, black] are en-
countered therefore in America, as in Malaysia.”
«En effet, parmi les populations actuelles, il en est qui ont conserve d'une
maniére remarquable le type craniologique de Lagoa-Santa et sont évidemment
les représentants parfois assez peu métissés de cette race. Or, aucune d’elles ne
ressemble au Neégre par le facies général, par le teint, par la chevelure, etc.;
tandis qu’une foule de documents nous les montre comme étant trés voisines
de certaines races jaunes par tour leurs caractéres extérieurs. C’est donc parmi
les représentants de ce type qu’il faut chercher des affinités ethniques reliant
les tribus fossiles a4 leurs descendants.” (Pp. 308-300.)
»“Ta race de Lagoa Santa, a en juger par les documents dont nous dis-
posons, pourrait étre considérée comme un simple groupe de la famille esqui-
male.’ (P. 310.)
2“Tes Noirs n’ont été que pour trés peu de chose dans la constitution des
races américaines.” (P. 335.)
“On ne saurait, je pense, attribuer en entier l’expansion des Papouas a
linitiative et a l’activité volontaire de ces insulaires. Leur arrivée a la Nouvelle-
Zélande et surtout en Californie est due, bien probablement, a quelque accident
de mer, a l’entraintement de quelques canots par le courant de la Nouvelle-
Hollande et par le Kouro-Sivo.” (P. 360.)
“F'n Malaisie, l’élément noir, si facile A reconnaitre lorsqu’il est pur, accuse
son intervention méme aprés de nombreux croisements. En Amérique, cet
élément disparait de partout, sauf sur un trés petit nombre de points extrémement
circonscrits.” (P. 550.)
*“Tes trois types fondamentaux de l’humanité se sont donc rencontrés en
Amérique comme en Malaisie.” (P. 551.)
NO: It MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 15
On pages 550-552 Quatrefages, now seriously influenced by the
Ten Kate finds in Lower California, thus summarizes his views on
the subject:
On the whole, America appears to have been peopled, for the larger part,
by immigrants connected more or less with the yellow stem. Relations of all
kinds existing between American aborigines and different Asiatic groups
have been noted many times by a multitude of travelers who have seen and
compared the two races. The European anthropologists have been able on
different occasions to recognize the exactness of these relations.
Notwithstanding this he believes that there also came to the
American coasts, through accidents of the sea, some blacks from the
South Seas. And these blacks
have not all remained on the coasts. Some of their tribes have penetrated
considerably into the interior of the continent. The ethnological map of M.
Powers shows that the tribe of the Achomawis, among others, reached the
Sierra Nevada and confines of the Shoshones. Judging from the following
statement, which I take from Schoolcraft, they reached much beyond this and
farther to the south. In 1775 the Padre Francisco Garcés visited Zufii, one of
the southernmost pueblos, and found there two races of men and two languages.
One part of the inhabitants showed a clear red color and handsome features;
the others were black and ugly. An instructed native, interrogated on the
subject, replied that the red people had come from one of the pueblos that
became ruined, while the blacks were the ancient inhabitants of the country.
Thus at least at this point the Papuas, represented doubtless by mixbloods, have
preceded the Pueblos, as they have preceded the Maoris in New Zealand. ... .
I have mentioned before the little that one can attribute to the African
Negroes, and I do not return to that part. As to the Melanesian blacks,
their role, although circumscribed, has been much more considerable. Already,
the details given by La Pérouse on the natives in the environs of Monterey
authorize plainly the admission that a black element had at least modified at
that point the color of the local races. The information which we owe to
Stephen Powers on several other Californian tribes should not leave place
for the slightest doubt. It results from his descriptions that the color is, as
was said by La Pérouse, perfectly or nearly perfectly black among the Yuroks,
Karoks, Chillalas, Gallinomeros, Achomawis, etc. This author speaks, among
other things, of the shiny and supple skin of some of these tribes, and compares
them in this regard to the Ethiopian Negroes; and this character is in com-
plete discord with what one observes in the yellow races. Unfortunately,
Mr. Powers says nothing about the hair, nor about the form of the skull. But
this last deficiency is filled by the discovery of M. Ten Kate.....
The California family is far from being homogeneous and should later on
be divided. The three fundamental types of humanity, the black, the yellow, and
the white, here encounter each other. We know that the representatives of
the first have arrived by the sea from the Melanesian islands. As to the two
others, at least on the whole, they came from the north. Possibly linguistics,
interrogated on the point of the mixture of the black race with the yellow and
white, will also give indications on the subject.
2
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
In addition to the above, Quatrefages came to believe in the presence
and rather wide dispersion in pre-Columbian America of the early
Norsemen, the Canary Islanders, and perhaps other contingents of the
white race; in smaller accidental accretions of the African Negroes ;
in the presence of small elements of the Polynesians and Indonesians,
and of larger numbers of the Chinese and Japanese.
In 1890, before the VIII International Congress of Americanists
at Paris, Ten Kate (1892) returns once more to the question of the
racial affinity of the American natives. In speaking on the “ Question
of Plurality and Parentage of the American Races”, he expresses
himself thus:
I maintain that the Americans, by the assemblage of their characters, belong
to the yellow races and that they are, as the Malay and the Polynesians, con-
geners of the so-called Mongolic peoples of Asia. Moreover, T believe this to
be the opinion of the majority of anthropologists, French as well as others.
.... I have not arrived at this conclusion until after I have seen and ex-
amined a great number. (P. 293.)
In 1917 Ten Kate still holds that “the somatic characteristics of
the American Indians, taken as a whole, are those of the yellow races
in general”; also that “ one finds Americanoid types almost every-
where: in Siberia, in the Himalayas and the neighboring regions, in
China, Japan, Indonesia, and Polynesia.” He believes he can dis-
tinguish in America at least six principal or “ primordial” and per-
haps as many secondary “ races ” ; some of which races, both principal
and secondary, inhabit also certain parts of eastern Asia and Oceania.
He makes no point of the occurrence of the seemingly Melanesian-
like skulls about La Paz in Lower California, and there is no refer-
ence in the paper to Melanesian or other blacks.
In 1894 approximately 100 additional skeletal parts, including one
skull, are brought from the east coast of Lower California by Léon
Diguet and are shortly after that briefly reported upon by Deniker
(1895). The skull resembles in the essentials those reported by Ten
Kate: the bones indicate a stature, in the men, of about 162 cm.
These remains, together with nine other skulls and some bones
from the same region brought by Diguet as a result of his second trip
to Lower California in 1898, became the property of the Muséum
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and came to be studied, together with the
Ten Kate material which is in the collections of the Société d’An-
thropologie in the same city, by Paul Rivet. Utilizing also data on
the small collection of Lower California remains preserved in the
United States National Museum at Washington, furnished by
Hrdliéka, Rivet in 1909 published a handsome report on the materials.
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 1,
He has obtained from the long bones the stature, for the males, of
164.4.cm; and the characteristics of the 18 available skulls, together
with those of the other parts of the skeleton, lead him to the follow-
ing deductions:
The Pericues [Lower Californians] differ from the American races in
general and especially from the neighboring Indian populations in the pro-
portions of their body and in a certain number of the characteristics of their
skeleton, which appear to approximate them to Negritic peoples, without
however showing a perfect identity with the latter.”
The main features that present similarities with the blacks, in
Rivet’s opinion, are the lack of platycnemy in the tibia and the high
pilasteric index of the femur, together with the relative shortness of
the neck and the torsion of this bone. As to the skulls, there is no
line of demarcation between those of the Pericues and those of the
Indians farther north, the characteristics of the one group passing
gradually into those of the others;* but he regards this as evidence
of an infiltration of the southern type into the more northern.”
Following Quatrefages, Rivet calls attention to the resemblance of
the South California cranial type to that of the northern Eskimo on
one hand, and to the Lagoa Santa skulls on the other, and then con-
cludes that,
* “Tis différaient des races américaines en général et surtout des populations
avoisinantes par les proportions du corps et par un certain nombre de caractéres
squelettiques, qui semblent les rapprocher des populations nigritiques, sans qu'il
y ait toutefois identité parfaite avec celles-ci.’ (P. 212.)
7°“ On constate également de la facon la plus évidente que plus on s’éloigne
de la Basse-Californie en allant vers le nord, plus l’indice cephalique tend a
augmenter, et ce phénoméne apparait avec une netteté vraiment frappante. Ce
fait, quia été déja signalé par Boas puis par Matiegka, ne laisse pas d’etre assez
embarrassant. En effet, étant donnée la continuité des termes de passage qui
existent entre la forme hypsisténocéphale typique de Basse-Californie et les formes
plus ou moins platymésati- ou platybrachycéphales de l’archipel septentrional,
il est extrémement difficile de faire des coupures dans un groupement en ap-
parence aussi homogéne, ou, en d’autres termes, d’indiquer une limite entre les
variations extrémes de deux ou plusieurs types humains réunis les uns aux
autres, comme dans le cas précédent, par des formes de transition aussi nom-
breuses que possible. En réalité, le probléme est insoluble si l’on s’en tient aux
rapports métriques, c’est-a-dire aux indices, et pour le résoudre, il faut faire
appel a la morphologie.” (Pp. 239-240.)
7“ Une infiltration du type hypsidolichocéphale s’est donc certainement pro-
duite vers le continent, plus accentuée, semble-t-il, que vers les iles, mais elle a
été arretée et submergée par les flots d’une autre race a caractéres tout a fait
différents, et parait de ce fait avoir été assez limitée.” (P. 242.)
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the Pericues of Lower California and the race of Lagoa Santa, with their
multiple representations, belong to one and the same ethnic type, which is none
other than the dolicho-acrocephalic Oceanic type of Biasutti and Mochi.*
In the following pages (244-248) Rivet inclines gradually more
and more to the conclusion that the Lower Californian and related
types of man in the two Americas are of Melanesian origin, owing to
ancient immigration from the Pacific; and that the differences they
present from the parent stock and among themselves are due to local
differentiations. He summarizes his views thus:
[The Lower Californians] connect closely with the South American race of
Lagoa Santa. They present no less evident affinities with the hypsi-stenocephalic
race spread over Melanesia and Australia. The differences which exist between
the three varieties of the same race, both as to skull and as to skeleton, are
explainable by the different conditions of life and different environment to which
they have been subjected. The double hypothesis advanced by Ten Kate in 1884
finds therefore in all points a confirmation. (P. 248.)
This adds a strange and unexpected chapter to the whole subject.
From this it would seem to be but a short step toward the conclusion
that the Australians have actually reached pre-Columbian America,
and this step, it will be seen, is not long in being taken.
Meanwhile, in 1877 and again in 1888, Rudolf Virchow, seeing the
variety of American-Indian crania, reaches the belief that this indi-
cates a heterogeneity of origin ; but we find here, as so often before as
well as Jater, an evident confusion of the concepts of “race” and
“type”. He says, in his earlier communication (p. 155):
The general craniological classification does not accordingly exclude the
possibility that, at very different times, dolichocephalic as well as brachycephalic
immigration into America took place..... The most dangerous of all is the
acceptance of a uniform old American stock..... The “red race” is probably
just as little uniform as autochthonous.
In 1888 he amplifies this statement thus:
Today I restrict myself to declaring that the physiognomic characters of the
American heads [skulls] show a divergence so manifest that it is necessary to
renounce definitely the conception of a universal and common type of the
American aborigines. They, too, are a mixture of several original races, and
the program of future researches will find its final expression in the separation
of the different ethnic elements that have entered into the composition of the
various living and extinct tribes. (P. 260.)
* “En définitive, les minimes différences qui existent au point de vue cranien
entre les deux races hypsicéphales de l’Amérique du Nord et de l’Amérique du
Sud me semblent explicables par l’évoultion divergente d’un méme type originel
et les différences beaucoup plus marquées du squelette facial par des conditions
de vie et surtout d’alimentation diverses, et je crois avec Ten Kate que les
Péricues de Basse-Californie et la race de Lagoa-Santa, avec ses multiples
représentants, appartiennent a un seul et méme type ethnique, qui n’est autre que
le type dolicho-acrocéphale océanique de Biasuttie et Mochi.” (P. 244.)
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 19
THE PUNIN AND TUNEBO SKULLS
In 1923 Mr. Tate, field assistant of the department of mammalogy,
American Museum of Natural History, found in a ravine near the
village of Punin, central Ecuador, a human cranium without the
lower jaw (Sullivan and Hellman, 1925). The skull lay “in a low
bank, directly over the water-course of the Quebrada Chalan, down
which a trickle of water flows normally but which is subjected to
torrential violence when rains are heavy.” The bank at this point was
abcut 6 or 7 feet high, and the skull appeared “ under conditions which
suggested but offered no definite proof of considerable antiquity ”.
(P. 314.) The specimen, which upon being taken out broke under
its own weight, was brought to the American Museum and repaired
and examined by Sullivan, while the dental arch and teeth were studied
by Hellman.
The cranium is defective, especially in the facial parts, and lacks
the lower jaw. It appears to have certain resemblances to an Aus-
tralian skull. The conclusion of the authors is as follows:
While the skull is undoubtedly American in the sense that the Lagoa-Santa,
Pericue, and Paltacalo material is American, it is not a common American
calvarium; .... In so far as the calvarium under discussion is concerned, we
can only say that there is absolutely no basis for excluding it from a series of
Australian or Tasmanian crania and every reason for including it. It is quite
possible that if we had the mandible and other parts of the skeleton our de-
cision might be different. We wish to emphasize particularly the point that in
claiming that this calvarium is Australoid we have in mind a basic racial rela-
tionship and do not believe that it necessarily represents migration from Australia
or Melanesia. We feel that unless this is indeed a very remarkable case of par-
allelism this type in America and the similar type in Australia and Melanesia
are derivations of the same basal racial stock. (Pp. 321-323.)
The statements in the last two sentences are not readily under-
standable, and no effort is made to explain them.
The author who, next to Rivet, takes the most pronounced stand on
the subject of the presence of Melanesians in America, is the esteemed
veteran of French anthropologists and Rivet’s close friend, R. Ver-
neau (1924). In 1922 he receives from a missionary two Indian skulls
from Colombia. One of these is deformed, but the other, that of a
recent “ Tunebo Indian ”’ who died of a snake bite and whose body
was abandoned by his friends, is normal. The skull is large (capacity
1705 cc”) and the principal measurements of the vault are: length
max., 19.1; breadth max., 13.3 ; and basilo-bregmatic height, 13.9 cm.
* This must be an error; the outside dimensions of the skull indicate a capacity
in the neighborhood of 1550 cc.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Except for the capacity, Verneau finds these dimensions to be very
close to those of the Papuans and especially the Malicollo Islanders
of New Hebrides; there are also Melanesian resemblances, together
with some differences, of visual character. The facial parts and par-
ticularly the facial breadth are somewhat less like those of the South
Seas blacks.
Though conscious of the danger of drawing deductions from a
single skull, Verneau nevertheless feels justified in concluding that
the Tunebo cranium reproduces the Papuan type. Compared with
those of different Melanesians, and more particularly with a selected
skull of a Papuan, the specimen in question shows various differences,
but these may individually be encountered in other Melanesian crania
and hence do not affect the conclusions. “ Our Tunebo”’, he says,
“offers such a sum of characters identical with those of the Papuans
that the few differences it presents—which can only correspond to
individual variations—do not in any way authorize its separation.” ”
A further support is given also to the Papuan resemblances of some
of the crania from Lower California. ‘All in all,’ Verneau decides,
“it now appears no longer permissible to doubt the great extension of
the Papuan type in the New World. Its traces it was found possible
to follow, in space, from Lower California to the southern extremity
of the continent and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; in time, from
the epoch of the race of Lagoa Santa to our day.’ Verneau admits, it
is true, that there are still ““ many gaps in our knowledge’”’ on the
subject, and that “ nothing is known as to the mode of the Papuan
migration”; but those are his only concessions.”
OTHER FINDS
In 1924, also, Lebzelter reports, before the Goteborg assembly of
the Congress of Americanists, on a normal male adult Ona skull col-
lected by Father Gusinde. The specimen is contrasted with the casts
of one Tasmanian skull, one Lagoa Santa skull, and the Chapelle-aux-
3“ Notre Tunebo offre une telle somme de caractéres indentiques a ceux des
Papouas que les quelques particularités qu'il présente—et qui peuvent ne cor-
respondre qu’a des variations individuelles—n’autorisent nullement a l’en séparer.”
(P. 378.)
“En résumé, il ne semble plus permis de douter, a lheure actuelle, et la
grande extension du type papoua dans le Nouveau Monde. Ses traces ont pu
étre suivies, dans l’espace, depuis la Basse-Californie jusqu’a l’extrémité australe
de l’Amérique, et de l’Atlantique au Pacifique; dans le temps, depuis l’époque ot
la race vivait 4 Lagoa-Santa jusqu’a nos jours. Certes, il existe encore beau-
coup de lacunes dans nos connaissances, mais que de progrés ont été accomplis
depuis le jour Ou A. de Quatrefages a attiré l’attention sur la question.” (P. 382.)
NOW LT MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 21
Saint Neanderthal cranium. The results indicate, in Lebzelter’s opin-
ion (1925), that the Ona specimen in many respects shows a primitive,
“so-to-speak, Australoid” type, though “of course the specimen
did not belong to a representative of that race; it is on the whole
of a highly developed type, but one which presents a large number of
primitive characters.” “ On the purely morphological grounds of the
available material it does not seem to Lebzelter very probable that
unmixed Australoids had ever been present in South America,
for we know up to the present not a single skull that could be attributed to the
Austro-Melanesian race; we know only American crania with more or less
primitive “Australoid” features... .. Should an Australoid element in South
America be ever surely determined, we should then have to accept the fact
that in the three southernmost parts of the inhabited world there exist the
remains of one and the same racial group which, following anthropological
usage, we call the “Australoid”’ group.”
““ Wir finden also an dem untersuchten Schddel eine solche Menge primitiver
Merkmale, dass die Annahme, dass innerhalb der Onabevolkerung auch Erban-
lagen einer sehr primitiven, sagen wir ‘australoiden’ Rasse vorhanden sind,
wohl nicht umgangen werden kann. Freilich gehorte der untersuchte Schadel
nicht zu einem Vertreter dieser primitiven Rasse, sondern wir haben einem
im ganzen hochentwickelten Schadeltypus vor uns, an dem bloss eine grosse
Anzahl primitiver Merkmale vorhanden sind.” (P. 420.)
** Das Vorhandensein dieser ‘ primitiven’ Ziige lasst sich nicht leugnen. Die
Frage ihrer Herkunft kann verschieden beantwortet werden. Einmal kann das
Auftreten solcher primitiver Merkmale in die natiirliche Variationsbreite sowohl
der Eskimos wie der Dolichoiden Siid-Amerikas fallen: Diese beiden Rassen
hatten sohin als Ganzes eine Reihe primitiver Erbanlagen. Die zweite Moglich-
keit besteht darin, dass diesen beiden Rassen oder zumindest doch den siidamer-
ikanischen Dolichoiden ein primitives, sagen wir ‘australoides’ Rassenelement
beigemengt ist. Dabei bleibt zu erwagen, ob diese Beimischung bereits vor der
Besiedlung Amerikas erfolgte, oder ob die Einwanderer auf eine australoide
Schichte gestossen sind, die schon frither vorhanden war. Nach der rein mor-
phologischen Betrachtung des vorliegenden Materiales erscheint es nicht sehr
wahrscheinlich, dass es in Stid-Amerika jemals unvermischte Australoide ge-
geben hat, denn wir kennen bisher keinen einzigen Schadel, der etwa der
austromelanesischen Rasse zugezahlt werden konnte; wir kennen nur amerikan-
ische Schadel mit einer grésseren oder geringeren Zahl primitiver ‘ australoider’
Merkmale. Dies wtrde darauf hindeuten, dass die Beimischung australoider
Elemente sehr weit zurtickliegt und quantitativ nicht bedeutend war. Die An-
thropologie allein wird nicht in der Lage sein, diese Frage zu ldsen, hier
mussen geographische und historische Erwagungen eingreifen. ‘Australoide’
Rassen waren in vergangener Zeit viel weiter verbreitet. Wir wissen, dass sich
die Neanderthal-Rasse von Mitteleuropa bis zum Kaukasus und bis nach Siid-
Afrika ausgedehnt hat. In Siid-Afrika hat neuerdings R. Broom australoide
Einfliisse nachgewiesen.
“Sollte sich wirklich auch in Siidamerika ein ‘australoides’ Efement mit
Sicherheit nachweisen lassen, dann hatten wir an den drei siidlichsten Enden der
bewohnten Welt die Reste ein und derselben Rassengruppe anzunehmen, die wir
nach wissenschaftlichen Brauch die ‘australoide’ Gruppe nennen.” (P. 434.)
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
LATEST THEORIES
About this same time there is another communication on Polynesian
and Melano-Australian elements in America by Rivet, and the evi-
dence begins now to be extended also to the philological and cultural
realms. The paper is published in 1924 and reprinted in 1925. In
the former we read as follows:
A North American [Hoka] and a South American [Tson] linguistic group
can be attached, respectively, to the Melano-Polynesian and the Australian
families.
In 1900, taking up again an idea advanced once by Ten Kate and de Quatrefages,
I have demonstrated that, by their osteological characters, the ancient inhabi-
tants of the southern part of Lower California and the South American race
called Lagoa Santa, presented very clear affinities with the hypsistenocephalic
race of Melanesia, and this thesis has recently been entirely confirmed by R.
Verneau..... Graebner, E. Nordenskidld, and Father Schmidt pointed out the
remarkable similarities which exist between the American and the Melano-
Polynesian civilizations.
The date when the Australians and Melanesians arrived in America cannot,
naturally, be fixed with precision; but it is at all events possible to affirm that
it was very ancient..... When the Europeans arrived in America the “ uni-
formization”’ in the aspect of the American tribes had already been realized under
the double influence of the environment and of mixture (the latter having been
surely the most efficacious) ; and it must have required many centuries for this
result to be attained.”
An especially definitive article on the problem under consideration,
by Rivet, appeared in 1925 in L’Anthropologie. The paper is a terse
*“ Un groupe linguistique nord-américain et un groupe sud-américain peuvent
etre rattachés respectivement a la famille mélano-polynésienne et a la famille
autralienne.” (P. 336.)
“En 1900, reprenant une idée autrefois émise par ten Kate et par de Quatre-
fages, j’ai démontré que, par leurs caractéres ostéologiques, les anciens habitants
de la partie méridionale de la péninsule californienne et la race sud-américaine,
dite race de Lagoa Santa, présentaient des affinités trés nettes avec la race hypsis-
ténocéphale de Mélanesie, et cette these a été entiérement confirmée récemment
par R. Verneau .... Graebner, E. Nordenskidld et le Pére Schmidt on signalé
les similitudes remarquables qui existent entre les civilisations américaines et
mélano-polynésiennes.” (P. 339.)
“La date a laquelle les Australiens et les Mélanésiens sont arrivés en Amérique
ne peut étre naturellement fixée avec précision. On peut affirmer toutefois qu’
elle est trés ancienne..... Lorsque les Européens sont arrivés en Amérique,
cette uniformisation d’aspect des tribus américaines était déja réalisée sous la
double influence du milieu et du métissage (cette derniére ayant été certainement
la plus efficace) ; or, il a fallu, sans aucun doute, de nombreux siécles pour que ce
résultat soit atteint.” (Pp. 340-341.)
NE __QV—Q—QaallSS--
NO. LL MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 23
discussion of the whole subject. It presents no new facts. The author
marshalls succinctly all the hitherto given physical, as well as certain
cultural and linguistic items of evidence that apparently favor the
theory of ancient Melanesian-Australian influx to the American con-
tinent, as well as some of the objections, and concludes:
There are now certain proofs that four elements have entered into the
formation of the American people:
An Australian element;
An element attached linguistically to the Malayo-Polynesian and by its physical
characteristics to the Melanesian group;
An Asiatic element, doubtless the most important, which gave the people of the
New World in general a certain uniformity of external aspect; and
An Uralian element, represented by the Eskimo,
The order of the coming of these different elements seems to have been that
in which they are here enumerated.”
In 1926 the problem of Australoid immigration into South America
is dealt with by Correa (1926a). The Wegener hypothesis of move-
ments of the continents leads Corréa to the belief that South America
at one time had a land connection with Australia through the inter-
mediary of the since displaced and severed Antarctica, and that man
from Australia and Tasmania reached America over the land and over
the small straits, canals, and islands that marked the former con-
tinuity of the continental masses.”
In 1926, too, Correa presents his views more amply and explicitly
at the XXII International Congress of Americanists in Rome. He
offers no original observations, but combats the view of the basic
unity of the American race and formulates thus his conclusions:
Anthropological, ethnographical, and linguistic analysis permits us to believe
that the genesis of the pre-Columbian populations of America involves the
intervention of divers ethnic strata. It is possible to distinguish, dispersed among
”"“En résumé, on a maintenant des preuves certaines que quatre éléments
sont intervenus dans la formation du peuple américain:
“Un élément australien;
“Un élément de parler malayo-polynésien se rattachant par ses caractéres
physiques au groupe mélanésien;
“Un élément asiatique, sans doute de beaucoup le plus important, qui a imposé
a l’ensemble des habitants du Nouveau-Monde une certaine uniformité d’ aspect
extérieur ;
“Un élément ouralien, représenté par les Eskimo.
“Tl semble que l’ordre d’arrivée de ces divers éléments soit celui dans lequel
je viens de les énumérer.” (P. 311.)
*.... ficava “a possibilidade da passagem do Homen, que transporia mais
facilmente pequenos estreitos e canais e aproveitaria istmos, peninsulas e ilhas
que marcavam, como ainda hoje algumas o fazem, a anterior continuidade dessas
massas continentais.” (P. 229.)
“
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the American Indians in variable degrees, Asiatic (Mongoloid and non-Mongo-
loid), Melanesian, Polynesian, Caucasoid, and Australian affinities. I believe
the first to be the clearest, the last most attenuated. There have also been men-
tioned [in connection with America] Pygmies, or Negritos. This problem awaits
solution.”
Regarding the Australia-Antarctic-South America route for human
immigration—* the topographic, biogeographic, paleontological, and
anthropological considerations render the utilization of this route very
probable”; though he is aware of the conjectural nature of his hy-
pothesis and of the fact that its adoption demands objective proofs.”
In the same year Rivet (1926c) discusses the problem of the way
of the supposed Australian migrations toward the American continent.
He states that during the last few years it has been possible to “ es-
tablish”, by anthropological, ethnographic, archeological, and lin-
guistic means, immigrations of Malayo-Polynesian, Melanesian, and
Australian contingents into the New World, but that the mode of
coming of the Australians offers still considerable difficulties. They,
as well as the Tson (the Patagonians, the Onas), their South Ameri-
can “ relatives,’ knew but primitive means of navigation which
were insufficient for any long sea voyage, and there is no indication
that they possessed anything superior in this respect in the past.
The coming of the Australians by way of the Bering Strait must be
excluded—there are no traces of them on the way. There remains the
southern route suggested by Correa, over the islands and waters of
the Antarctic, which may have presented a different configuration in
the past, due possibly to a greater ice extension. The material evi-
dences of such migration remain to be determined.
7“ T analyse anthropologique, l’ethnographie, la linguistique, nous permettent
de croire a la genése des populations précolombiennes de |’Amérique en ad-
mettant l’intervention de diverses stratifications ethniques. On peut déméler
parsemées, en degrés variables, chez les Indiens de l’Amérique des affinités
asiatiques (mongoloides et non-mongoloides), mélanésiennes, polynésiennes, cau-
casoides, australiennes. Je crois que les premieres sont les plus nettes, les
dernicres les plus atténuées. On a parlé aussi de Pygmées, voire de Négritos.
C’est un probléme a résoudre.” (P. 107.)
*“ Mais les considérations topographiques, biogéographiques, paléontologiques
et anthropologiques rendent trés vraisemblable l’utilisation de cette voie d’accés.
.... Certes l’adoption définitive de mon hypothése exige préalablement des docu-
ments objectifs de l'utilisation de cette voie par homme. II faut cependant
espérer qu’on obtiendra dans l’avenir ces documents, dont un grand nombre sont
peut-étre ensevelis sous les glaces mystérieuses des terres antarctiques.” (P. 116.)
“Je ne conteste pas le caractére conjectural de plusieurs de mes considérations.
On r’oserait pas donner comme déja établie la voie de transit dont j’ai présenté
Vhypothése. Mais je n’hésite pas a considérer celle-ci comme légitime et trés
vraisemblable.” (P. 118.)
NOD 1m MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 25
In 1926 in Scientia, Rivet, although not bringing any new evidence,
states his beliefs with especial emphasis. All the hypotheses that
endeavor to explain the coming of man to America over since-vanished
continents may now be eliminated, for such disappearances, in the
unanimous view of the geologists, were all anterior to the Quaternary
period. The American Indians are not autochthonous. They did
not have a unique [single] origin, but have suffered the dominant in-
fluence of a race which, in a certain measure, has produced uniformity
of their external aspect ; and they did not reach America before the
end of the paleolithic period. There were three main ethnic elements
that entered into the formation of the pre-Columbian American popu-
lation, namely: the Australian ; a group speaking a Malayo-Polynesian
language but physically connected with the Melanesians; and, by
far the most important, an Asiatic element, in which may be dis-
tinguished two related groups, one Uralian (Eskimo) and the other
Sino-Tibetan (NaDene). The order of arrival of these elements on
the American continent appears to have been that in which they are
enumerated.
In 1927 Rivet, basing his conclusions on the Lagoa Santa skulls,
on a collection of crania from limited localities in Ecuador and in
Lower California, and on certain ethnographic and linguistic data,
comes to a “ renewed conception ”’ of the peopling of America:
Surely, the Asiatic element here plays the principal rdle, but henceforth a
part must also be assigned to a Melanesian and an Australian element. ... .
The American aborigine appears therefore as a product of very diverse ethnic
elements, among which the Asiatic was manifestly the dominant one.®
Rivet reaches furthér interesting conclusions as to the times of
the immigration into America. Nothing to date, he believes, authorizes
us to suppose that the first occupants reached America before the
” “De cet ensemble de fait découverts en quelques mois, se dégage une con-
ception renouvelée du peuplement de |’ Amérique.
“Certes, apport asiatique y joue toujours le role principal, mais une part
doit étre faite désormais a un apport mélanésien et a un apport australien. En
outre, la notion assez vague d’une migration asiatique s’est précisée, au moins
en partie, puisque, dans la masse de ces émigrants, on peut maintenant discerner
des Sino-Thibetains et des Finno-Ougriens.
“L’homme américain apparait donc comme le produit d’éléments ethniques
trés divers, parmi lesquel 1l’élément asiatique a manifestement été dominant.
Cest cet élément qui a donné a I’Indien cette uniformité d’aspect tout extérieure,
sous laquelle une observation attentive découvre un extréme polymorphisme,
manifeste non seulement dans le type physique, mais dans la civilisation et dans
le langage.” (Pp. 22, 23.)
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
end of the glacial epoch.” The routes from Asia were across Bering
Strait and the Aleutians. They were certainly followed at all subse-
quent times and have served for many human waves.” The Mela-
nesian migration must have been over the seas and was certainly very
ancient.” The Australians came, about 6,000 years ago, along the
shores of the Antarctic.”
The theory, it is seen, has developed.
FUEGIANS
A study of 47 Fuegian skulls in Gusinde’s and certain European
collections, together with some Australian materials, led Gusinde and
Lebzelter in 1927 to the following somewhat ambiguous conclusions :
The general impression conveyed by the somatological status of each of the
three Fuegian tribes is unequivocally that of what is characteristic of the Ameri-
“ Aucun fait ne nous autorisant a supposer a l’heure actuelle que le Nouveau
Monde ait recu ses premiers occupants avant la fin de l’époque quaternaire, il
est certain que les voies d’accés que l’-homme a pu emprunter étaient sensiblement
les mémes qu’aujourd’hui et nous devons renoncer a supposer qu'il ait utilisé
des terres ou des continents disparus a des epoques géologiques antérieures.”
(28235)
““ Pour la migration asiatique, la route naturelle a été celle du détroit de
Behring et du chapelet des iles Aléoutiennes. Elle a été certainement suivie a
toutes les époques et a livré passage a de multiples vagues humaines.” (P. 23.)
““Ta migration mélanésienne a du, par contre, étre essentiellement une migra-
tion maritime, transpacifique. Pour un peuple qui avait occupé successivement
toutes les iles de la Polynésie, jusques et y compris l’ile de Paques, atteindre la
cote américaine n’était presque qu’un jeu. J’ai, d’ailleurs, montré que les suc-
cesseurs des Mélanésiens, les Polynésiens, n’avaient pas perdu le secret de cette
route vers les terres de l’est et entretenaient avec l’Amérique du Sud des rela-
tions commerciales, a la faveur desquelles des échanges culturels et des emprunts
de plantes utiles (notamment le cocotier et le calebassier) se sont réalisés.
La date de la migration mélanésienne ne peut naturellement étre fixée d’une
facon absolue. Elle est certainement trés ancienne, tout d’abord parce qu’il a sans
doute fallu beaucoup de temps pour que cet élément ethnique soit absorbé par
les immigrants asiatiques, absorption déja réalisée au moment de la découverte
de l’Amérique, et aussi parce que des éléments culturels mélanésiens typiques
apparaissent sur la cOte péruvienne dés les horizons archéologiques les plus
anciens. C’est tout ce que, pour l’instant, on peut se hasarder a dire.” (P. 23.)
*«T varrivée d’un élément australien en Amérique s’explique beaucoup plus
difficilement, car les Australiens sont et ont toujours été de mauvais navigateurs
et n’ont jamais possédé d’embarcatins permettant de longues traversées.
“Aprés avoir envisagé plusieurs hypothéses, je me suis finalement rallié a
Vidée suggérée par Mendes Corréa. Selon lui, les Australiens auraient gagné
Amérique en suivant les rives de l’Antarctique et en utilisant les chapelets d’iles
qui relient ce continent a l’Australie d’une part, a l’Amérique d’autre part. Il
est possible, en effet, qu’au moment de l’optimum postglaciaire, les conditions
NO ee MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 27
can race; the tall Selk’nam, especially, show far-reaching analogies with the
Tehuelche of Patagonia, while the smaller, more pygmoid Yamana and Hala-
kwulup resemble some of the shorter-statured Indian tribes of northern South
America, especially in the interior of Amazonas. However, notwithstanding this
more general outer equality, there appeared on closer study various unmis-
takable peculiarities which have the status of racial features.* (Pp. 259-260.)
On the basis of a relatively considerable amount of Australian and Fuegian
material it has become possible to draw the broad conclusion that in the struc-
ture of the individual bones, as in the total build of the cranial vault, there are
extensive similarities, similarities that for the most part extend also to the
Neandertal races. On the other hand, however, there is found, as apparent from
the dimensional determinations, a smaller series of characteristics which the
Fuegians share with the Neandertalers but not with the Australo-Melanesians.
These facts indicate in what light the relations of these groups must be appraised:
they point undoubtedly to an original connection; they all denote a certain
original style of the structural plan, which manifests itself to small details.
This assumption receives further strengthening and support from the study of
the facial parts of the skull. (P. 266.)
THE “ MELANESIANS ” OF BOLIVIA
While the above reports were accumulating, a new “ Melanesian ”
focus developed in eastern Bolivia. Called to the country by the
University of La Paz about 1925, Dr. Richard N. Wegner visited
Bolivia, observed some of the native tribes of the country, and
believed that he saw or learned of physical types among them that
resembled the Melanesians.
In 1927 he published a brief account of these types, with six photo-
graphs of individuals. He has not seen the people in question, the
photographs having been taken by Engineer R. Gerstmann, who had
met with a small group and who furnished Wegner both the pictures
and the information concerning them. They belong to certain nomads,
small parties of which, surrounded by Indian tribes, roam through the
forests of eastern Bolivia between the Piray and Grande Rivers.
They are described as in some instances rather tall (one man 1.78
meters), with markedly wavy hair and a strong growth of beard.
They also show thick lips, low root of the nose, flat nose with trans-
verse apertures, dark, Negroid skin color; but they are asserted to
have ‘“ not the least to do” with the now widely spread Negroes in the
area. To find such a “strongly differing race” among the Indian
tribes of the region is, in the opinion of Wegner, of “sensational ”
climatiques de ces régions, aujourd’hui si inhospitalieres, aient pu permettre le
passage d’une migration humaine. Dans cette hypothese, l’exode australien vers
Amérique remonterait a 6.000 ans environ.” (P. 24.)
“4 die als Rassenmerkmale sich ausgaben”’.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
interest to science. In many points he sees their striking resemblance
to types of the southern seas, particularly those of New Guinea, both
the Negritos and the Papuans.
In 1930 Wegner states further his belief that he had also seen in
the Qurufiga traces of an older and lower race, which reminded him
of the Papuans or South Sea islanders.
The above reports have drawn attention anew to the tribes men-
tioned, especially to the Siriono. These groups, however, were not
unknown before. They are dealt with rather thoroughly, in fact,
by Father Cardus, one of the Franciscan missionaries among the tribes
of eastern Bolivia. Writing of the years 1883-4, Father Carduts says:
The Sirionos are of the Guarani race, and their language is very much like
that of the Guarayos. They are very savage and ferocious, and live dispersed over
the forests and pampas along the streams and about the lakes of the region
between the lands of the Bibosi, Guarayos, Carmen y Loreto de Mojos, and the
Pinay (Rivera a): =
The Sirionos are dark in color like the Guarayos, or possibly somewhat paler,
for the reason that they are nearly always in the shade of trees. Some few
were encountered who could be taken for Whites and with blue eyes, but this
is due to the fact that such individuals were taken as children from some
ranch or settlement of the Whites. There has also been seen among them a
Negro, a son, we suppose, of some Negro deserter of the army in the time
of the “independencia”. There are also among them some families of differ-
ent origin, whose language the Guarayos cannot understand. They are proba-
bly of the Mojo race and live in every way as the others.”
What we are most sure of is that formerly the Sirionos did not do such
harm as at the present and that at various places they came to beg something
from travelers, without molesting the latter. It appears that the Whites were
the first to hurt them, especially the traders, who through fear and cowardice
started to shoot at them with their guns to drive them away from the forests
and the roads; which certainly could not have been very agreeable to these
savages who, like all the rest, are so suspicious and revengeful. The fact is
that at present the Sirionos are very inimical to all the Whites as well as to
*“T os sirionos son de raza guarani, y su lengua es muy parecida a la de los
guarayos. Componen una tribu muy salvaje y feroz, y viven diseminados por
los bosques, pampas, rios, arroyos y lagunas comprendidos entre las cercanias
de Bibosi, Guarayos, Carmen y Loreto de Mojos, y el rio Piray.” (Pp. 279,
280.)
46° T os sirionos son de color moreno como les guarayos, y tal vez un poco
mas palidos, por razon de estar casi siempre bajo la sombra de los arboles. Se
han encontrado unos pocos que podrian decirse blancos y con ojos azules, pero
esto se debe 4 que siendo chicos han sido llevados de alguna estancia 6 pueblos de
blancos. Tambien se ha visto algun negro entre ellos, que suponemos ser hijo
de algun negro desertor de la tropa en tiempo de la independencia. Hay tambien
entre ellos algunas familias de diferente origen, cuya lengua los guarayos no
pueden entender. Probablemente son de raza mojena, y viven en todo como los
demas.” (P. 280.)
NO? LT MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 29
all the other Indians, and that they do not want to talk with anyone nor to
see anybody except, if they can, to discharge an arrow at them.”
Koch-Grtinberg (1906), referring to the many little-known hordes
roaming the primeval forests of eastern Bolivia and neighboring
regions, though not mentioning the Siriono, believes that they all
belong to the great poorly defined group known by the opprobrious
name of “ Makis”’ and representing the remains of the old original
population of the territory.“ A portrait of a Maku (p. 180) shows a
typical Indian; but two other pictures—one that of a woman from
the same river (Tiquie) as the Maku (p. 179), the other of a youth
from the Rio Ica—show a decided Negro (African) admixture.
In r911 the Siriono and their material culture were briefly dealt
with by Nordenskiold. They have a rather wide distribution, are
treated roughly by the Whites, and are feared and hated by the sur-
rounding Indians. It is not certain whether all that are called
“ Siriono ” in Bolivia belong to one tribe. They have been mentioned
in literature since 1839 (D’Orbigny). Their language is said to be
corrupted Guarani, but they seem also to have another language.
Nordenskidld saw two Siriono youths, one of whom he pictures. His
skin was of the same brown as that of the Guarayu Indians. The
hair of the second youth was somewhat brownish, and his skin was
unusually light, like that of “a strongly anaemic White who has lived
long in the Tropics ”’.
The Siriono seem to Nordenskidld to belong to the Maku tribes ;
they are probably “ primitive Indians who as a result of their con-
tacts with Guarani-speaking fugitives were largely ‘ Guaranized’.”
“““T 4 que sabemos mejor es, que antes los sirionos no hacian tanto dano
como ahora, y que en varios lugares salian 4 pedir algo a los viajeros, sin
molestarlos. Parece que los blancos han sido los primeros en molestarlos a
ellos, principalmente los comerciantes, quienes por temor y por cobardia empez-
aron a dispararles algunos tiros con armas de fuego, para alejarlos de las pascanas
y caminos; lo cual no podia ciertamente agradar mucho a unos salvajes que,
como todos los demas, son tan desconfiados y vengativos. El hecho es que
actualmente los sirionos estan muy enemistados con todos los blancos y con
todos los demas indios, y que no quieren hablar con nadie, ni ver a nadie sin
que, si pueden, no les disparen un flechazo.” (P. 282.)
“Tn der Tat versteht man unter diesem Sammelnamen eine ganze Anzahl
von Horden mit sehr voneinander abweichenden und sehr primitiven Sprachen,
die eine ganz neue Gruppe darstellen. Ich médchte alle diese niedrigstehenden
Horden, die sich somatisch sehr von den tibrigen Stammen dieser Gegenden
unterscheiden, auch kulturell einen durchaus altertiimlichen Charakter tragen
und sich iiber ein riesiges Gebiet, sozusagen von Manaos bis zu den Ande aus-
dehnen, fiir die Reste einer sehr urspriinglichen Bevélkerungsschicht halten.”
(P. 180.)
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The hair of the second youth as pictured by Nordenskidld (plate 6)
is curly, and his aspect, in the opinion of the present writer, is that of
an Indian-Negro mixblood.
Finally—as a result of a trip to Chile and Bolivia and the ex-
amination of considerable skeletal material from those countries,
Dr. O. Aichel reported that he had found “ interglacial man” and
“ Neanderthaloid types”’, but failed to obtain evidence of either
Australian or Oceanic immigration. (Aichel, 1932.)
CRITIQUES
The subjects dealt with in this paper have never as yet received a
thorough discussion. A sensible, broad and well-documented exposi-
tion of the whole subject of the peopling of America appeared in
1922 from the pen of the respected veteran French anthropologist,
Henry Vignaud; and the most relevant section of the treatise leaves
no doubt as to the conclusions of the author. It reads as follows:
A number of these scientists believe that Malayo-Polynesian [term used often
by Rivet] immigrations have sensibly modified the primitive yellow type of
the American Indians, who would thus form today but a mixed race. We believe
that the most recent researches do not justify this opinion. We know nothing
of the migrations to which is attributed such a great importance, and the
proof that they had any influence on the formation of the American physical
type is completely wanting. In our opinion, this type has remained what it
was originally—the type of a branch of the great original yellow race, and one
that has suffered the least through environment and through contacts with foreign
elements.”
Noteworthy as the above statement was, it received scant or no at-
tention, and new contributions to the Malayo-Polynesian and Melano-
Australian theories followed.
A mildly critical discussion, based on historical, cultural, and linguis-
tic evidence, of the problem of Australian, Melanesian, and Malayo-
Polynesian presence in pre-Columbian South America, was published
in 1930 by the well-known Americanist, Walter Lehmann. In this
*“< Plusieurs de ces savants croient que des émigrations malayo-polynésiennes
ont sensiblement modifié le type jaune primitif des Indiens américains, qui ne
formeraient plus aujourd’hui qu’une race métisse. Nous pensons que les plus
récentes recherches ne justifient pas cette opinion. Nous ne savons rien de
ces migrations auxquelles on attribue une si grande importance et la preuve
qu’elles ont exercé une influence quelconque sur la formation du type physique
américain manque complétement. Selon nous, ce type est resté ce qu'il était
originairement, et c’est celui de la branche de la grande race jaune primitive
qui a subi le moins l’influence des milieux et des contacts avec l’étranger.”
(Pe 25))
NO. UL MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 31
discussion due notice is taken of the assumed evidence on the sub-
ject, including the vague early references to “ blacks” in the Darien
region and elsewhere, as well as of all the seeming proofs advanced
by Rivet, but they are found wanting, and the author, while not
closing the door to any possible new and more satisfactory evi-
dence, remains in general unconvinced or skeptical. Speaking of the
supposed relations of the Chon Catenion and Ona) with the Aus-
tralian languages, he says:
It remains uncertain whether the word comparisons of Rivet do justice to the
realities of the languages used..... The dictum of Wilhelm von Humboldt
that such comparisons should not be trusted readily is true even today.....
For the present it cannot yet be said that the similarities he [Rivet] brings
forth can be regarded as assured facts.”
As to the ethnographical resemblances enumerated by Rivet, Leh-
mann is of the opinion “ that it is still too early to draw, from his
comparisons, any valid conclusions.” ”
The question of the Darien or other “ Negroids” is undecided ;
the subject calls for further investigation.
An able treatment of the subject of migrations to America from the
Pacific was presented in 1933 by Roland B. Dixon,” one of the
foremost American ethnologists. His principal conclusions on the
problem were as follows:
It has been seen that the claims for similarity between American and Oceanic
traits are in the majority of cases only superficially true. The resemblances,
so far as they exist, are analogies and not homologies, and as soon as one studies
details, the differences are found to be both significant and fundamental. (P. 344.)
A further point of significance is that if we are to explain the presence of
these Polynesian or Melanesian traits in America as due to diffusion, why do
we not also find here other traits equally or even more characteristic of the
supposedly immigrant peoples? (P. 345.)
I believe, therefore, that quite apart from the lack of validity of many of
the analogies claimed between American and Oceanic cultural traits, the
practical difficulties in the way of diffusion as an explanation are well-nigh
insurmountable. (P. 351.)
°« Rs bleibe dahingestellt, ob die von Rivet versuchten Wortvergleichungen
dem wirklichen Wesen der herangezogenen Sprachen gerecht werden.....
Noch heute gilt der Ausspruch Wilhelm von Humboldts zu Recht, dass man
sich derartigen Vergleichen night leichtglaubig anvertrauen darf..... Es kann
heute noch nicht gesagt werden, dass die von ihm aufgestellten Gleichungen
als geisicherte Tatsachen angesehen werden diirfen.” (P. 326.)
1“ dass es noch verfriiht ist, aus den von ihm vorgenommenen Vergleichen
irgendwelche endgiiltigen Schliisse zu ziehen.”
The question of possible Polynesian voyages to America is discussed more
especially by this author in his paper published in 1934.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
When all the many instances are sifted and critically weighed, there remains a
very small residue of, perhaps, two or three which render the acceptance of
trans-Pacific contact not only just, but apparently inescapable, although the
modus operandi is still very difficult to understand. Such contacts as did occur
were, however, limited I believe to Polynesia; I know as yet of no valid evidence
for any with Melanesia or beyond. But although Polynesians did thus very
rarely, and probably at long intervals, make such contacts with the people of
South America, the net result was negligible so far as America as a whole
or South America in particular was concerned; and the claims of the diffusion-
ists for the far-reaching influences of trans-Pacific cultural diffusion must, I
believe, be disallowed. (P. 253.)
The latest (1934) discussion of the subject dealt with in this treatise
is contained in Von Eikstedt’s “ Rassenkunde’’. Regarding the Mela-
nesians, this author is skeptical so far as the Lagoa Santa and other
South American groups are concerned ; the cranial resemblances mean
merely a partial convergence ; but, basing his belief on some mentions
of “ blacks ” in the early writers,” he accepts readily the presence of
true “ Melanesoids ” in Darien and Lower California.”
On page 750 of the same publication Von Eikstedt is even more
explicit. Speaking of the cranial resemblances of the Australians and
Melanesians with some of the South American Indians, he says:
It is understood that there can be no question of direct race relation. This
is excluded not only by the spatial conditions, but also by the physical charac-
teristics of the living. We have here not related races but similar phylogenetic
phases. The so-called Australimorphous hominid stage is found in old Europe
as the Aurignacian race, in South Africa as the Cape-flats race, in Australia
as the Australians, and finally also in the coast type of Brazil.”
* Martyr, Petrus, 1533; De Gamboa, Sarmiento (?); Vizcaino, 1602.
“Ter bewiesene melanesid-lagide Parallelismus stellt ausschliesslich einen
kraniologischen Parallelismus dar. Die heutigen Ges und Tunebo sind alles
andere als dunkelhautig und kraushaarig. Wir haben in diesen Fallen also eine
partielle Konvergenz vor uns, die wohl ein abstammungsgeschichtliches Interesse
haben kann, aber keine taxonomische Bedeutung besitzt. Altperuanische Be-
richte sind zu vage, um ttberhaupt gewertet zu werden. Was aber die offenbar in
Darien und Kalifornien vertretenen richtigen Melanesoiden angeht, so ist ihr
Auftreten nicht tiberraschend.” (P. 871.)
55“ Selbstverstandlich kann es sich nicht um direkte Rassenverwandtschaft
handeln. Das schliessen nicht nur die raumlichen Verhaltnisse, sondern schliesst
auch die Somatologie der Lebenden aus. Es liegen mithin nich verwandte Rassen,
sondern ahnliche phylogenetische Schichten vor. Die sog. australimorphe Schicht
der Hominiden findet sich als Aurignac-Rasse im alten Europa, als Cape-flats-
Rasse in Siidafrika, als Australier in Australien, und schliesslich bietet der alte
Kiistentypus Brasiliens die gleiche Schicht auch im letzten Raum der zirkum-
asiatischen Landmassen, in Amerika.” (P. 750.)
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 33
DISCUSSION
Thus the theories have grown, and the simple realities have become
more and more obscured. An untraceable mention, an overstatement
by an imaginative correspondent or writer, a dark skin, a broad nose,
wavy hair, a brief visit to a few tribes, a few measurements and peculi-
arities of a skull, or just an inspiration without direct knowledge of
America or the Indian, have seemed to scientific theorists justification
enough for bringing to the New World the most unlikely human
groups, with their women, over thousands of miles of unknown
oceans, in spite of the obstacles of thirst, hunger, winds, and currents.
If these hypotheses are true, they ought to withstand critical exami-
nation. Being brought forward by men whose words deserve at-
tention, they cannot be wafted aside by any mere negation, even
though this were based on sufficient knowledge. Let us then, with
open minds, test the evidence brought in support of these theories.
This should be done from the point of view of that branch of sci-
ence which must be the chief arbiter in such matters, namely, physi-
cal anthropology; though other relevant considerations may be
unavoidable.
TIME
’
When are the different contingents of “ blacks ’
reached pre-Columbian America?
So far as the “ Africans” of Darien are concerned, the matter is
fairly simple. They are said (in Peter Martyr) to have reached the
American shores but recently. But the source of the reports of this
group is not known. They are not authenticated by either the authori-
ties of the territory nor by Oviedo, the official historian and early
settler of the newly discovered land. Moreover, a group of either
pirates or slaves from a ship of the time would of necessity have been
small and without women. For such a group to penetrate a territory
of virile tribes, maintain itself as such for any length of time,
and even conduct war with the natives, borders on the impossible.
There is no further notice or trace of the group, Velasco’s 1901
second-hand report applying to conditions nearly four centuries after
the multiple introduction of the Negro into America by the Spaniards.
Can any scientific weight, under such conditions, continue to be given
to this item? It does not seem possible. Moreover, such an occur-
rence, even if by some rare chance real, would have had no effect on
the American native population.
There remain, therefore, only the Melanesians and the Australians.
supposed to have
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The spread of the Melanesians in the South Seas preceded, it is
known, that of the Polynesians, but was antedated by that of the
Negritos. According to various indications, the “ Melanesian” sail-
ings belonged essentially to the last millennium before the Christian
era. But by that time America was already peopled; furthermore,
judging from the reception given the first contingents of Whites, what
chance of survival would there have been for a small stray group of
any other people, and especially one not stronger than the native
Americans? Where the first Whites were not massacred or sacri-
ficed, they were soon provided with native wives, and their blood was
thus started on a progressive dilution until within a few generations
it practically disappeared ; and the same would have been the lot of
any isolated small parties of other strangers.
To leave any traces of their type, and especially any plain traces,
the Oceanic blacks would either have had to reach America in re-
spectable numbers of both sexes—which, considering the distances
they would have had to cover and their means of transportation, ap-
pears impossible—or they would have had to reach the continent
before the Indians did, which borders on the fabulous. At this point
it is legitimate to ask whether there were as yet any “ Melanesians ”
before the time of the peopling of the Americas from the far north.
They are a mixed people. They show to this day types that approach
now the Indonesian, now the Negrito, and not seldom even that of
the true Negro, all of which indicates as yet imperfectly assimilated
mixtures. These conditions differ, moreover, from group to group.
And to this day there is known no real antiquity of any of the groups.
Who then can venture to say just who were the forefathers of the
Melanesians far back of the historic period. There are serious diffi-
culties, it is evident, whichever way one turns.
With the Australians matters are still worse. These people, too,
are badly mixed, and the strains differ from province to province.
(Hrdlicka, 1928.) Rivet suggests that they came to America some
6,000 years ago, and Mendez Corréa’s Antarctic theory would tend
to place the coming in a still more remote past ; but what and where
were the “Australians” of that time, and which of the strains of
today represents the ancestral strain that would have reached America?
One might even ask whether 6,000 years ago Australia itself was as
yet peopled, for even with the Talgai skull there is no conclusive
evidence on that point. Added to this are the same difficulties con-
cerning the American preservation of the type as there were with the
Melanesians.
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 35
The above are no mere academic objections, but real material ob-
stacles that would have to be scientifically disposed of before the
claims they relate to could be accepted as established.
EXTENSION
The Oceanic “blacks” are represented as having reached Tierra
del Fuego, a part of Brazil, Ecuador, and Colombia, and lower as
well as upper California, spreading as far eastward, at least, as New
Mexico. This is a very wide distribution, but the voids in it are even
more remarkable. They comprise vast regions in Argentina, Brazil,
the Andean and Pacific South America, and all central America.
There is no comfort in the suggestion that many of these parts are
still but little known and that the gaps may be closed through future
discoveries. A population of such assumed extent would of necessity
have represented such numbers and so long a presence that its material
remains would have to be at least fairly abundant, and some remains
could not have failed to be discovered by this time. Great difficulties
here, alone, confront those who would foster the Melano-Australian
notions in relation to America.
CULTURAL REMAINS
So far as known, the supposed Australian and Melanesian blacks
have left no sites that could be attributed to them, no recognizable
accumulations, no archeological remains whatsoever in any part of
America. They must have forgotten the boats they came in and even
the sea itself, becoming largely land dwellers. There is no trustworthy
tradition about them. They left, it is claimed, a series of words in
some of the Indian languages ; but the words of comparison are taken
from different observers, and from the recent Indians as well as the
recent Australians and Melanesians, the assumption being that these
select words remained the same in both parts of the world from the
far past to this day.
These matters should not be discussed by one not a specialist in
these lines; but there is to be remarked the very striking fact that
not one of the numerous American workers of note in the lines of
archeology, cultural anthropology, or linguistics, men who have de-
voted their lives to these subjects and had the closest contact with
the American aborigines, has either advanced or identified himself
with the Melano-Australian hypotheses.
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
““ MELANESIANS ”’ IN NORTH AMERICA
While very lucid and critical about the Lagoa Santa and other South
American remains, so far as then known, Quatrefages in his last
major work (1889) has accepted, as significant, references that lacked
scientific support or were even grossly erroneous.
Three separate accounts were used by this author (1889), the first
found in the Journal of La Pérouse, the second in Stephen Powers,
and the third in the account of Padre Francisco Garcés.” The first
two relate to Indians of California, the last to the Zuni.
As to La Pérouse (1791), all that this explorer says is as follows:
In old and new California there are
about 50,000 wandering Indians. .... These Indians are in general small and
weak, and discover none of that love of liberty and independence which charac-
terizes the northern nations, of whose arts and industry they are also destitute;
their colour very nearly approaches that of the negroes whose hair is not
woolly; the hair of these people is strong, and of great length; they cut it four
or five inches from the roots. Several among them have a beard, others, ac-
cording to the missionary fathers, have never had any, and this is a question
which is even undecided in the country..... We perceived only half the
adults to have a beard, this, with some of them, was very ample, and would
have made a figure of some importance in Turkey, or the vicinity of Moscow.
(Vol. 2, pp. 196-108.)
To this is added the following: At Mission San Carlos, near Mon-
terey—‘ The colour of these Indians, which is that of Negroes... . .
(Vol! 2p. 212;)
The exact reference to the work of Powers is not given, but it
can only be his “ Tribes of California’ (Contributions to North
American Ethnology, vol. 3, Washington, 1877). This is one of the
classics in its field. It was not written by an expert, the author having
been a journalist, but it gives by far the most comprehensive and gen-
erally reliable information on the Indians of California published to
that date. In all its 635 pages there is not the slightest suggestion of
any race but the Indian. The text must have been badly misunder-
stood. What Powers says about the physical characters of the sev-
eral tribes mentioned is as follows:
[The Karok.|—On the Klamath there live three distinct tribes, called the
Yu-rok, Ka-rok, and M6-dock, which names are said to mean, respectively,
“down the river”, “up the river”, and “head of the river”. (P. 109.)
The Karok are probably the finest tribe in California. Their stature is
only a trifle under the American; they have well-sized bodies, erect and
strongly knit together, of an almost feminine roundness and smoothness... . .
*® Said to be recorded by Schoolcraft, but I was not able to locate it in the
Schoolcraft archives.
NO LE MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 37
(P. 19.) The Klamath face is a little less broad than that on the Sacra-
mento; in early manhood nearly as oval as the American; cheek bones
large and round-capped, but not too prominent; head brachycephalic; eyes
bright, moderately well sized, and freely opened straight across the face; nose
thick-walled and broad, straight as the Grecian, nares ovoid, root not so de-
pressed as in the Sacramento Valley ; forehead low and wide, nearly on a perpen-
dicular line with the chin; color ranging from hazel or buff-hazel to old bronze,
and almost to black. .... (Pp. 19 and 20.) With, their smooth, hazel skins,
nearly oval faces, full and brilliant eyes, some of the young women—barring
the tattooed chins—have a piquant and splendid beauty.
[The Yurok.]—Living nearer the coast, they are several shades darker than
the Karok, frequently almost black; and they are not so fine a race, having
lower foreheads and more projecting chins. On the coast they incline to be
pudgy in stature, though on the Klamath there are many specimens of splendid
savagery. Like all California women their mohelas (a Spanish word of general
use) are rather handsome in their free and untoiling youth .... (p. 44).
Portraits of Yurok women (figs. 2 and 3), and all other portraits
of the Californians in the book, show purely Indian features.
[The Chillula.|—Like most of the coast tribes they are very dark-colored,
squat in stature, rather fuller-faced than the interior Indians. (P. 87.)
[The Gallinomero.|—May be considered a branch of the great family of the
IELTS 6 boc They are nearly black, Ventura being the blackest of all; and on
a warm, sunny day in February when he is chopping wood briskly his cuticle
shines like that of a Louisiana field-hand. The nose is moderately high, straight
and emphatic, with thick walls, and ovoid or nearly round nares; lips rather
thick and sensual; forehead low, but nearly perpendicular with the chin; face
rounder and flatter than in the Atlantic Indian; eyes well-sized and freely
opened straight across the face, with a sluggish but foxy expression; color
varying from old bronze or brown almost to black. (P. 174 et seq.)
[The Achomawi (Pit River Indians) ]—vThe faces are broad and black and
calm, and shining with an Ethiopian unctuousness; the foreheads are like a
wall; in those solid, round-capped cheek-bones, standing over against one another
so far apart, and in those massive lower jaws, there is unmistakable strength,
bred in the bone through tranquil generations. .... Here is a hearty and a
lusty savagery which it is pleasant to see. (P. 267 et seq.)
[In general.]|—Physically considered the California Indians are superior to
the Chinese, at least to those brought over to America. (P. 4o1.)
There is no word in Power’s work likening the people to Negroes,
African or Melanesian; nor is there any trace in the text or the illus-
trations of wavy or curly hair, or of anything else that would suggest
aught but Indian.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
As to the Zufi, Quatrefages quotes from Schoolcraft (citation not
given) thus:
In 1775 the Padre Francisco Garcés visited Zuni, one of the southernmost
pueblos, and found there two races of men and two languages. One part of the
inhabitants showed a clear red color and handsome features; the others were
black and ugly. An instructed native, interrogated on the subject, replied that
the red people had come from one of the pueblos that became ruined, while the
blacks were the ancient inhabitants of the country.
All these references to “ blacks ” in California Quatrefages regards
as applying to Oceanic Negroes and in connection with the Garcés
account says:
Thus at least at this point the Papuas, represented doubtless by mixbloods,
have preceded the Pueblos, as they have preceded the Maoris in New Zealand.
As to Father Garcés, the fact is he never visited the Zuni. The
farthest he reached were the Hopi in Arizona. And it is of the Oraibi
village of the Hopi that he has the following to say:
There are in this pueblo two languages, and I noted that even the modes of
singing are diverse, as are the two classes of persons, who are distinguished
from each other in the stature and color of both males and females (Indios y
Indias). There are some of a very light (claro) and somewhat ruddy (rubio)
complexion, as well-formed as the Yabipais; there are others small, dark, and
ill-favored. (1900 edition, vol. 2, p. 384.)
It does not need any argument to see that in all three of the refer-
ences to “ blacks ” in California and the southwest the eminent author
was unfortunate and that they cannot be used in support of the
presence in those regions of any other racial element than the Indian.
Another reference that may be brought forth in this connection is
that of Vizcaino, of which Quatrefages did not know. It relates to
the southern end of Lower California and hence to the region from
which proceed the Ten Kate and Diguet collections. It dates from
1602 and is given by Torquemada (1615) as follows:
Father Antonio asked a Negro to carry in a basket some biscuits and dis-
tribute them among the Indians; the Negro went, and they showed much pleasure
at seeing the Negro and gave him to understand that they were friendly and had
had dealings with some Negroes; and that somewhere nearby there ought to
be some settlement of Negroes.”
The only comment that seems possible on the above note is that
it is very vague and uncertain. The Spanish did not know the language
71 Padre Frai Antonio..... llamo a un Negro, que traia en una
Espuerta, 6 Tanate, un poco de Vizcocho, para repartirlo entre ellos; y el
Negro se llegd, y ellos se hollgaron mucho con vér el Negro; y le dieron a
entender, tenian ellos amistad, y trato, con algunos Negros; y que por alli
cerca debia de aver alguna Poblacion de Negros.” (P. 698.)
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 39
of the tribe they met with and had no interpreter ; and the encounter
took place in 1602, 97 years after the importation of Negroes into
the West Indies“ and scores of years after their introduction into
Mexico. A little out-of-the-way settlement of escaped slaves would
then have been quite possible; but there is no corroboration of any
such people in this region by either the early missionaries or other
writers. A fact which might possibly be drawn upon in this connec-
tion is the presence in the collection from this territory in the U.S.
National Museum of two evidently Negro skeletons; but this collec-
tion was made 200 years later, after the Negro had effected a wide
penetration.
SKIN, HAIR, NOSE, AND OTHER FEATURES
The basic pillar of anthropology is variation, and there is no an-
thropologist who is not deeply cognizant of this principle. The entire
organic evolution, including that of man, is based upon and made
possible only by individual and groupal variability. This means that
however pure, i.e., free of mixture, human or other beings may be,
there will be no two individuals, nor even any two features, exactly
alike ; and the same applies even more strongly to any two families,
clans, tribes, or other groups. The demonstration of these facts is all
about us. Further, it is well known that the normal genetic variations
are influenced by the environment including habits, food, and even
pathology.
But the lessons of all this are often forgotten, even by scientific
workers. Thus the skin color of the Indian ranges normally and
outside of all admixtures from yellowish-tan to the dark brown of
solid chocolate. It is especially dark in hot and dry regions, such
as Arizona and the Californias, and that particularly in the old men,
who used to go almost or wholly naked. But the color is never black.
It could only be compared with that of the not infrequent fullblood
Negro who is dark brown rather than black. Between the color of
such a Negro and that of a dark fullblood Indian there is but little
difference, and it means no more that the Indian has any Negro blood
than that the Negro has any Indian admixture. They are both within
the possibility of normal plus environmental and conditional range of
variation of their two races. These are simple facts, with many
analogies in other parts of the world.
8“ As early as 1505 Negroes were sent to the Antilles to work in mines.” The
Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 3, pp. 307-308. See also page 41.
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
As to the hair and features, the normal ranges of individual varia-
tion here, too, account for racial approaches. But there enters here
another important factor on the originally Latin parts of the American
continent, and that is the extensive admixture with post-Columbian
African blacks. During more than four centuries the Negro has been
brought to America. The total number of African blacks thus intro-
duced into this continent reached millions. A considerable number
from among these blacks have mixed with the Indians, and the result-
ing mixbloods have, as captives or visitors, spread the new blood
widely, even to tribes that may never have had any direct contact with
the Negro. Thus more or less truly Negroid features, as those of
Whites, may today appear almost anywhere in the American tribes,
but they mean as a rule a post-Columbian African, or again European,
admixture. All this is well known to all anthropologists, but is often
lost sight of.
THE SKULL AND THE SKELETON
What has just been said about the body applies also to the skull
and the skeleton. Apparently Negroid characteristics of and about
the nasal aperture, especially, are not rare in America, particularly
in the hot regions. In the Southwest it is the Pueblos that show this
more than the Californians, but the resemblance is limited to the nasal
aperture, not extending to the nasal bones or other structures. More-
over, there is generally no reflection of it in the living.
As to the relative dimensions of the vault of the skull—in other
words, its type—these are as much simply architectonic as of racial
significance. Individual skulls from widely different races may and
do closely resemble each other in both their absolute and relative pro-
portions without there having been the slightest contact between the
groups. It is well established that all recent human groups belong to
the same species, that their differentiation is not very ancient, that
their skeletal development follows the same laws, and that barring
their distinguishing external marks, they present many similarities.
It is only the totality of detailed cranial and facial characters of an
ample series of skulls that is of much value in racial differentiation.
To what disastrous results an implicit dependence on some of the
cranial measurements or characters might lead, especially in single
or but a few specimens, has been shown repeatedly even in cases of
noted authors. With the bones of the skeleton matters are even more
difficult, the general pan-human resemblances being still closer. It
would be a rash anthropologist who from the skeleton alone, less the
skull, would attempt a positive racial identification, except perhaps
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 41
in specially characteristic examples of the African Negro. This is
not to deny the value of craniometry or osteometry, but only to
emphasize the fact that these, like all other scientific methods, have
their limitations.
ADDITIONAL NOTES: LOWER CALIFORNIA
Let us look more closely and critically at the cornerstone of all
the contentions here dealt with, the case of Lower California. We
find the following:
Lower California was reached by Ortun Jimenez as early as 1534;
its coasts were explored in part by Cortés in 1536, fully by Ulloa in
1537-38, and were touched upon by Cavendish in 1587.
The bay of San Barnabe, discovered by Cavendish, was reached
and briefly occupied in 1596 by the expedition of Sebastian Vizcaino.
Other trips to the southeastern coast of the peninsula were made from
Mexico at different times during the century. Pearl fisheries had been
conducted by the Mexicans in the gulf along the eastern coasts of the
peninsula since 1615 and, some rich pearls having been brought out,
“from that time on many of the settlers from the provinces of
Culiacan and Chiametla commence to frequent the gulf in small boats
to fish for pearls and to obtain these from the natives’ (Venegas),
as a result of which the Indians suffered many vexations. In 1632
a new effort at a “conquest”’ of the peninsula and at colonization
was made by Orteya. Still other efforts followed, all abortive, until
the arrival in 1697 of Padres Salvatierra and Piccolo, who established
the first missions, guarded by soldiers. The Philippine galleons began
in 1734 to touch at Cape San Lucas for taking on water, debarking
the sick, and repairing. In 1735-36 Yaqui and other soldiers from
Sonora and Sinaloa made war against the Lower Californians. More-
over, throughout the latter part, at least, of the history of the country
there is evidence of a continuing admixture of the Indians through the
agency of soldiers and others, besides which there was an introduction
of some Yaqui women and even whole families.”
In addition to all this, there was early and repeated introduction
of the African Negro among the Indians of southeastern and southern
California. The introduction of the Negro into America began with
the second voyage of Columbus in 1494. By 1501 “no Jews, Moors,
or new converts were to go to the Indies, or be permitted to remain
there”; but Negro slaves “born in the power of Christians, were
to be allowed to pass to the Indies, and the officers of the royal revenue
*” See especially Lassépas (18509, pp. 8-10).
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
were to receive the money to be paid for their permits.” (Helps, vol. 1,
p. 180.) Not long after Ovando had come to the government of
Hispaniola, it appears that he “ solicited that no Negro slaves should
be sent to Hispaniola, for they fled amongst the Indians and taught
them bad customs, and never could be captured.” (Helps, vol. 1,
pp. 219-220.) Las Casas, to relieve the burden of the Indians, advised
“that each Spanish resident in the island should have licence to
import a dozen Negro slaves.” (Helps, vol. 2, p. 18.) “ The number
of Negroes imported into America from the year 1517, when the
trade was first permitted by Charles the Fifth, to 1807, the year
in which the British Parliament passed the act abolishing the slave
trade, cannot be estimated at less than five or six millions.” (Helps,
vol. 4, p. 371.) “‘ Many instances might be adduced showing that, in
the decade from 1535 to 1545, Negroes had come to form part of
the households of the wealthier colonists. At the same time, in the
West India Islands, which had borne the first shock of the conquest
and where the Indians had been more swiftly destroyed, the Negroes
were beginning to form the bulk of the population; and the licences
for importation were steadily increasing in number.” (Helps, vol. 4,
p. 401.)
Cortés, in 1535 or 1536 (De Humboldt, 1825) in his journey to
Lower California, carried with him 300 Negro slaves. Both Ulloa
(1539) and Alarchon (1540), his lieutenants, were accompanied by
Negroes.” Venegas says (pp. 94, 201): “It is known that some
ships have left Mulattoes and Mestizos at Cape San Lucas.” “ Yen-
eca”’, Clavigero tells us in his History of Lower California (1852,
p. 83), “ was a place inhabited by a tribe of Indians whose chief was
a mulatto named Chicori”’ ; while “ the governor of Santiago [mission
between La Paz and Cape Lucas] was a convert named Boton, son
of a mulatto and an Indian woman’. From the records about the
missions it is seen that mulattoes or Negroes who lived with the
Indians were instrumental in the insurrections of the Lower Cali-
fornians against the Missions; and that the first permanent settlers
were released soldiers, sailors, and those who knew how to work
the ground (see Lassépas, op. cit.). Among these men, who generally
married native women, were not a few colored.
These data show that from at least as early as 1545 the African
Negro came into contact with the natives of Lower California and
eventually mixed with them. There is a bare possibility that a few
Oceanic blacks may have been left in the vicinity of Cape San Lucas
” See also Helps, A. (1855) ; Winsor, J. (1885); Rippy, J. F. (1921).
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 43
by the Philippine galleons ; but in general the blacks who reached the
territory were African. They admixed the natives especially about
the more frequented ports, such as La Paz, and they or their de-
scendants could not but have left some of their skeletal remains with
those of the Indians. That this actually happened has already been
noted, and that it influenced the theories of the peopling of the pe-
ninsula will be shown later.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LOWER CALIFORNIA ABORIGINES
None of the explorers, missionaries, or others who ever came in
contact with the natives of Lower California calls them anything but
Indians, and none makes any allusion to anything other than Indian
concerning their looks or behavior. This has some weight, for among
the explorers and especially the missionaries were men of education,
who, moreover, were well acquainted with the Indian elsewhere.
What statements there are concerning the physical characteristics
of the natives in question show them to be only Indians. The relevant
notes are as follows:
1539. Ulloa (1810, vol. 3, pp. 478-486) :
The next day wee rode at anker here [southern parts of east coast Lower
California] for lacke of good weather to sayle withall: whereupon the Captaine
determined to goe on shore with nine or ten in his company, to see whether
there were any people there, or any signe of people that had bene there, and
they found on the maine land seuen or eight Indians like to Chichimecas, which
were gone a fishing, and had a raft of canes; .. . . these Indians were of great
stature and saluage, fat also and well set, and of browne colour..... Tuan
Castilio the Chiefe Pilot went that day in the bote on shore with seuen in his
company, and they landed neere the Sea, and on a certaine low ground they
found foure or fiue Indians Chichemecas of great stature, and went toward
them, who fled away like Deere that had been chased. After this the Pilot
went a little way along the Seashore, and then returned to his boate, and by
that time he was entered thereinto, he saw about fifteen Indians of great stature
also, with their bowes and arrowes.
1759. Venegas (p. 58):
Of all the nations hitherto discovered, the [Lower] Californians are at least
equal to any in the make of their bodies. Their faces also are far from being dis-
agreeable, though their daubing them with ointments, painting them, and boring
holes through their nostrils and ears are very great disadvantages. Their com-
plexion indeed is more tanned and swarthy than that of the other Indians of
New Spain. But they are in general robust, vigorous, and of healthy countenance.
1773. Baegert (pp. 357-358) :
In physical appearance the [Lower] Californians resemble perfectly the
Mexicans and other aboriginal inhabitants of America. Their skin is of a dark
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
chestnut or clove color, passing, however, sometimes into different shades, some
individuals being of a more swarthy complexion, while others are tan or copper
colo1ed. But in new-born children the color is much paler, so that they hardly
can be distinguished from white children when presented for baptism; yet it
appears soon after birth, and assumes its dark tinge in a short time. The hair is
black as pitch and straight, and seldom turns gray, except sometimes in cases of
extreme old age. They are all beardless, and their eye-brows are but scantily
provided with hair. The heads of children at their birth, instead of being
covered with scales, exhibit hair, sometimes half a finger long. The teeth,
though never cleaned are of the whiteness of ivory. The angles of the eyes
towards the nose are not pointed, but arched like a bow [epicanthus]. They
are well-formed and well-proportioned people, very supple, and can lift up from
the ground stones, bones, and similar things with the big and second toes. All
walk, with a few exceptions, even to the most advanced age, perfectly straight.
Their children stand and walk, before they are a year old, briskly on their
feet. Some are tall and of a commanding appearance, others small of stature, as
elsewhere, but no corpulent individuals are seen among them, which may be
accounted for by their manner of living, for, being compelled to run much around,
they have no chance of growing stout.
1789. Clavigero:
In features, in hair, in beard, and in color, they [the Lower Californians]
are similar to the natives of Mexico.”
NATIVE TRADITIONS
All the native traditions of their origin, among the Indians of Lower
California, pointed to the north. No known tradition of any of the
neighboring tribes, to the north or to the east, has anything in it
that would refer to any non-Indian population in, or influx to, those
parts of the world.
MODERN EXPLORATION
None of the Mexicans who within the last or the present centuries
have studied their native tribes suggest even by a single word anything
but Indian in aboriginal Lower California or on the west coasts of
Mexico.
During the period from the latter part of the last century to the
present time, the tribes in the vicinity of Lower California have been
visited and studied by many American, as well as some European,
anthropologists, including Ten Kate, Hrdlicka, McGee, Kroeber, and
all those who have given their attention to the tribes north of the
peninsula, particularly Boas and C. Hart Merriam. There is not
*“ Nelle fatezze, nei capelli, nella barba, et nel colore sono similli ai popoli
ne Missico.” (1789, vol. I, p. 113.)
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 45
one word in the reports of any of these that would suggest the pres-
ence in these regions of any people but Indians. Diguet’s portraits
(1899) of the few survivors of the Lower Californians, except where
the individual is plainly a mixblood, show characteristic Indian physi-
ognomies, without trace of anything extraneous.
SKELETAL REMAINS (LOWER CALIFORNIA)
The American studies of the skulls and bones of the Californian,
southwestern, and Mexican Indians have shown nothing that does not
fall within the range of variation of the Indian.”
The United States National Museum has seven adult skulls from
the east coast of Lower California, several of which show red paint.
One, U.S.N.M. no 61398, from the vicinity of La Paz, collected by
L. Belding—one of the original Ten Kate specimens—is painted red
but is distinctly Negroid (African). It shows, moreover, a marked
scaphocephaly due to premature union of the sagittal suture, a fre-
quent and highly characteristic feature of the African Negro. The
skeletal parts, also stained red, show a marked case of rickets, a disease
absent in the Indians and so far as known also in the Melanesians,
but common in the American colored people. The bones show marks
of no great age and may well be late post-Columbian. The skeleton
seems to be unquestionably that of an African Negro, who, judging
from the rickets, was probably born in America.
Of the remaining six skulls, five are plainly enough Indian, though
not of the common Indian types. One alone, U.S.N.M. no. 148213,
from Espiritu Santo Island, is in its vault rather strongly remi-
niscent of some Melanesian types, but it differs from these in the teeth,
the glabella, the nasion-orbital region, the malars, the alveolar pro-
trusion, and other particulars. One can readily see how, without
sufficient American material for comparison, the opinion that such
a specimen was Melanesian might be formed by reputable men of
science. Such opinion, however, would fail to take into consideration
the fact that the vaults of skulls of the same cranial indices, par-
ticularly in the very long, narrow, and high, as in the short, broad,
and low skulls, resemble each other considerably all over the earth,
regardless of race; and it would fail to realize the possibilities in
American as well as other skulls, under related conditions, of related
developments.
@Hrdlitka (1906, 1027, 1931).. See also report on crania measured by
Kroeber, Loud, Gifford, and Hooton in Gifford, E. W. (1926).
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Pronounced grades of dolicho-steno-hypsicephaly occur in native
skulls in other parts of America, and they even occur in instances
among English and American whites, with no pathological significance.
The essential character in such skulls or heads is the narrowness of
the vault, the length and height being in the main of compensatory
nature. The causes of the excessive normal narrowness are as yet
not clearly understood. The sutures in such cases show no premature
occlusion, the temporal muscles no excessive development. Such
individual skulls do not fall outside the curve of normal variation:
they are merely at its extreme; there is no reason, therefore, to
regard them either as mutants or as extraneous. This type of skull
tends, however, to “run” in families, and an incidental segregation
of such families could quite possibly produce a regional strain or
group marked predominantly by conspicuous narrowness of the skull.
Such a segregation has apparently taken place in southern Lower
California, as may have happened before in the Lagoa Santa region
and elsewhere in America. Recent evidence shows a similar group
in southwestern Texas. Some very narrow skulls, proceeding from
north-central Texas, were recently brought to our attention by Hooton
(1933). Of four of the five crania, Hooton says: “ They are ex-
cessively dolichocephalic ”, but otherwise “in no particular unusual ” ;
they may represent one of the earlier strata of the American popula-
tion, but “ there is a definite possibility that the extreme dolichocephaly
of these skulls is merely a local or familial variation.” Western Texas
seems particularly fertile in this type of specimens. The whole subject
is now being studied by Dr. Stewart (1935) of the United States
National Museum. Decidedly narrow and long, and often high,
crania may be seen not uncommonly among the eastern Algonkins,
especially those of Long, Manhattan, and Staten Islands (Hrdlicka,
1927, 1916). Cranial vaults (not considering facial parts) exceed-
ingly like those of Lower California and Texas, are now known from
Labrador, Greenland, the old igloos near Point Barrow, and Seward
Peninsula (Hrdlicka, 1930).
It seems that henceforth it will be necessary to recognize in both
the Americas a widespread though irregular occurrence, among the
dolichocephalic types, of skulls with excessively narrow, long, and
frequently relatively high vaults, with here and there a local segrega-
tion and consequent prevalence of these characters. Such grouping,
as indicated, is especially common among the Arctic Eskimo, but has
manifested itself also here and there among the Indians. The “ type ”
thus produced means, according to all the evidence, nothing extra-
American, nor does it mean as Quatrefages inclined to believe, an
be)
NO. It MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 47
extension of the Eskimo, but is essentially of cranio-technological
character, multiplied in various localities through heredity. Its realiza-
tion is to be viewed as an interesting and peculiar natural phenomenon
and not necessarily a foreign introduction. One of the greatest faults
and impediments of anthropology has always been and is largely to
this day, in spite of ever-growing evidence to the contrary, the notion
of the permanence of skull types, and of their changeability only
through racial mixtures or replacements. It is time that this attitude
be replaced by more modern and rational views on the subject, based
on the steadily increasing knowledge of biological laws and processes,
together with such powerful factors as segregation and isolation.
RESUME
A critical examination of the few mentions of “ blacks ” in America
shows that, impartially considered, none bears the character of scien-
tific evidence, particularly as to pre-Columbian occurrence.
From the standpoint of physical anthropology, the question of the
presence in pre-Columbian America of a substratum of Melanesians
and even Australians begins with Quatrefages’, and somewhat later
Ten Kate’s suggestions of morphological similarities with express dis-
avowals of racial connections. As times goes on these suggestions are
gradually clothed with unwarranted significance; the presence of a
Melanesian, and eventually even Australian, element in the American
aboriginal population takes on more and more of reality; the doctrine
is supported by resemblances in certain cranial forms and dimensions
and eventually also by a series of cultural and linguistic similarities ;
until finally the belief assumes the semblance of a demonstrated fact.
The Melanesians come to account for the American dolicho-hypsisteno-
cephals wherever these are met with, and the Australians, though less
in importance, occur from Ecuador to Tierra del Fuego. The presence
of the Australians is determined on the basis of a few defective crania
and resemblances in a small series of words, and these suffice not
merely for the formulation of the conclusion as to the presence of
the Australians in America, but also for the invocation of geographical
conditions in the Antarctic that would permit the immigration of
these poor navigators from Australia. Publications are multiplied, and
the same communications are published repeatedly, to convince. The
evidence appears at first sight so sufficient and so well backed that
some serious students, though perhaps they have never had the
chance to study the American natives first hand or to any material
extent, feel justified in accepting and even fostering the hypotheses.
4
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
To the writer, who has spent the major part of his life in somato-
logical and medical studies among the American natives, who has
personally visited more than 100 tribes from Point Barrow in the
north to Patagonia in the south, who now has at his disposal in his
division in the U.S. National Museum over 10,000 American crania
and skeletons, all of which have passed through his hands, and who
was fortunate enough to examine a larger number of Australian skulls
than any other man (1928), the acceptance of the theory of the pres-
ence on the American continent of old contingents of either Mela-
nesians or Australians has not been possible. To him the whole his-
tory of the case appears to have transcended the realm of critical
science and passed into that of psychology. He has asked for proofs
(1926), but these were not furnished. He has scanned the assumed
evidence with open mind, and found it wanting.
The objections are briefly as follows:
The assumed basic foundations of the contentions are built on sand.
They are the statements of Quatrefages and Ten Kate. Both these
observers made legitimate suggestions regarding some of the morpho-
logical features of certain American skulls. If both went somewhat
beyond this, the dearth of material in their time, the prevalent exag-
gerated values then attributed to various cranial features, deceptive
statements in publications of non-scientific writers, and the lures of
theory, were perhaps sufficient explanation. Yet neither has seen
anything really Melanesian or especially Australian in South America,
which is a point of especial weight with Ten Kate, who spent a con-
siderable length of time in Argentina and studied Indian material in
that country. Nothing could be clearer than the statement of Quatre-
fages concerning his reference to Papuan skulls in connection with
the skull from Lagoa Santa.
There remain the skulls of Lower California. These skulls, like
those of southwestern Texas, do bear certain resemblances to some
of those of Melanesia. But this type is found also in not a few other
and widely separated regions of America, both among the Indians and
the Eskimo. It is contemporaneous with other types of these Ameri-
can people and connects with them. In the regions in which it is found
there were never reported any aberrant strains or any strains other
than the Indians or the Eskimo.
The only conclusion that appears possible in view of all the facts
is that the hypotheses of either Melanesian or Australian, and even
that of recognizable Polynesian, presence on the American continent
is not demonstrable, nor even probable ; that the dolicho-steno-hypsi-
cephalic cranium is not extraneous but represents one of the several
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 49
cranial types of both the Indian and the Eskimo; and that whatever
cultural or other resemblances may appear to exist between the pre-
Columbian Americas and the South Seas must have other explana-
tions than any material accession of the peoples of the latter parts of
the world to the American populations.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES
PIGASETTA, 1510, Brazil; in Burney, J., A chronological history of the discoveries
in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean: Voyage of Fernando de Magalhanes,
1517, vol. 1, p. 21 et seq., London, 1803.
The Brazilians of the region of Rio de Janeiro are thus described by
Pigasetta: “ They are without religion. Natural instinct is their only law.
It is not uncommon to see men 125 years of age, and some of 140. They live
in long houses or cabins they call boc, one of which sometimes contains a
hundred families. They are cannibals, but eat only their enemies. They
are olive coloured, well made, their hair short and woolly. They paint
themselves both in body and in the face, but principally the latter. Most of
the men had the lower lip perforated in three places, in which they wore
ornaments, generally made of stone, of a cylindrical form, about 2 inches
in length. Their chief had the title of Cacique... ..
“In colour they were blacker than was thought to correspond with so
cold a climate... ..
According to Burney: “ Pigasetta was a man of observation, but with
very moderate literary acquirements; he was fond of the marvellous, and
much addicted to the superstitions of his time. .... His narrative was
written in a mixed or provincial dialect of the Italian language.” His
description of a Patagon (p. 33): “* This man’, says Pigasetta, ‘was so
tall that our heads scarcely came up to his waist, and his voice was like
that of a bull” The guanaco is described by Pigasetta to “have head and
ears like those of a mule, a body like a camel, legs like a stag, and a tail
like that of a horse, which it resembles likewise in its neighing.’ Pigasetta
gives also some ‘strange descriptions of birds seen by them; some which
never make nests, and have no feet, but the female lays and hatches her
eggs on the back of the male in the middle of the sea.”
CAVENDISH, 1587, southern end of Lower California: im Kerr, Robert, A general
history and collection of voyages and travels, vol. 10, Edinburgh, 1814.
Cape St. Lucas, Lower California:
“Within this cape, there is a large bay, called by the Spaniards Aguada
Segura, into which falls a fine fresh-water river, the banks of which are
usually inhabited by many Indians in the summer. ... . Having dismissed
the Spanish captain with a noble present, and sufficient provision for his
defence against the Indians.... . » (Pp. 80-81.) The above is all that
is said about the natives.
VIZCAINO, 1596, 1602, lower end of Southern California; in Torquemada, J. de,
Monarchia Indiana, vol. 1, book 5, chaps. 41-45.
There are the following more relevant references to the natives; they
contain no trace of any suggestion as to Negroid characters.
Near Puerto San Sebastian the Spanish “hallaron grande numero de
Indios Infieles, Gente desnuda, y con Arcos, y Flechas, que son sus Armas
ordinarias, y algunos Dardos de Varas tostadas, que suelen arrojarlos, y
hacen mucho dafio con ellos. Fueron mui bien recibidos de todos aquellos
Indios, sin ninguna resistencia, aunque por ambas partes huvo grande
vigilancia, porque los Indios recelaban alguna traicion, y los nuestros algun
dafio.” (P. 682.)
50
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
At Puerto San Sebastian: “dispararon algunas Piecas de Artilleria, en
presencia de much multitud de Indios, que alli estaban, que avian salido
a ver los Forasteros.” (P. 683.)
Report of two soldiers on their trip to an inland village of above Indians:
“Lo que dieron por nueva fue, que vieron gran suma de Gente, y muchas
Mugeres, y Nifios, que los salieron a vér, que tenian las Casas debaxo de
Tierra, algunas cabadas en Pefias, y otras paxicas. Esta Gente, Rancheada
por aquellos Lugares, venia cada Dia donde los nuestros estaban, dando
siempre mues tras de Paz, los unos, y los otros; mas en quince Dias que
alli estuvieron.” (P. 683.)
Puerto La Paz: ‘“ mucha Gente, que récibieron bien, y con muchas sefiales
de Paz, y amistad fia nuestros Espanfoles, haciendo grandes demonstraciones
de contento, con su venida.”
“acudia todos los Dias grande numero de ellos, y con mucha familiarida
los trataban, y comunicaba, y les traian algunas Frutas, y Pescado. Los
Religiosos, por su parte, incitaban a los Indios, que les diesen a sus Hijos,
y a todos los Muchachos, que tenian, para ensejfiarlos.”
Puerto San Bernabé: “en la Plaia avia un grande numero de Indios
desnudos, todos con Arcos y Flechas, y algunos de ellos, con Dardos en las
manos; los quales con gran grita, y voceria, y hechando Arena con las manos
en alto, parecia llamban a los de los Navios.”
“Los Indios andan desnudos, y usan Copetes, y en ellos ponen quantas
cosas hallan, que les parezcan vistosas. Algunos de ellos tenian los cabellos
rubios, usan emijarse de blanco, y negro, y son afables, alegres, agradecidos,
y Gente de buenas entrafias, y un natural docil.”
Dixon, RoLanp B., The independence of the culture of the American Indian.
Science, vol. 35, pp. 46-55, 1912.
“The Papuan tribes are not, so far as we know, a markedly seafaring
people, and so far no evidence of their actual presence east of the 180°
meridian has come to light.” (P. 54.)
“Although certain curious coincidences undoubtedly exist with parts of
Oceania and southeastern Asia, no historical relationship between the cul-
tures of the two widely separated regions can as yet be said to have been
established.”
Dixon, Rotanp B., Contacts with America across the Southern Pacific. In
American Aborigines, Fifth Pacific Sci. Congr., pp. 315-353, published in
Toronto, 1933.
“What, then is the answer to this problem of trans-Pacific cultural
diffusion? Does the demonstration that a Polynesian contact took place
once entitle the diffusionist to assert that all his other claims must be ad-
mitted too? I do not think so. For the speciousness of most of his trait
analogies still holds, and in all such cases the claim for exotic introduction
has no real basis. When all the many instances are sifted and critically
weighed, there remains a very small residue of, perhaps, two or three which
render the acceptance of trans-Pacific contact not only just, but apparently
inescapable, although the modus operandi is still very difficult to understand.
Such contacts as did occur were, however, limited I believe to Polynesia;
I know as yet of no valid evidence for any with Melanesia or beyond. But
although Polynesians did thus very rarely, and probably at long intervals,
make such contacts with the people of South America, the net result was
negligible so far as America as a whole or South America in particular was
concerned; and the claims of the diffusionists for the far-reaching influences
of trans-Pacific cultural diffusion must, I believe, be disallowed.”
NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA Si
FRIEDERICI, GerorG, Malaio-Polynesische Wanderungen. Verhandlungen des
neunzehnten deutschen Geographentages zu Strassburg, im Elsace, pp. 210-
21, Berlin, 1915.
FRIEDERICI, GEORG, Die vorkolumbischen Verbindungen der Stidseevolker mit
Amerika. Mitteil. deutsch. Schutzgebieten, vol. 36, p. 45, 1928.
FRIEDERICI, GEORG, Zu den vorkolumbischen Verbindungen der Siidsee-Vo6lker
mit Amerika. Anthropos, vol. 24, pp. 441-487, 1929; with extensive
bibliography.
Critical discussion of the seeming cultural and linguistic evidence. Author:
remains skeptical.
NoRDENSKIOLD, E., Origin of the Indian civilizations in South America. Jn
American Aborigines, Fifth Pacific Sci. Congr., pp. 249-311 (with 5 pp.
of bibliography), published in Toronto, 1933.
“T wish to make it clear that by this time I have become very skeptical
of Indian culture having been appreciably influenced from Oceania, although
I shall endeavour to stand entirely apart from that, and discuss the problem
as objectively as possible.” (P. 261.)
“As is well known, we find in South America quite a number of culture
elements of which parallels are found in Oceania. These we may call
Oceanic, although it certainly does not imply any proof that they have been
imported into America from Oceania.” (P. 264.)
“Tn conclusion I ought to remark that South American Indian civiliza-
tion includes certain elements that have been adopted in post-Columbian
times from Negroes and Europeans, and have so completely merged into
this culture that it is only through the most careful investigation that
proofs of their origin are establishable.” (P. 306.)
Nico.xe, C., Un argument d’ordre médical en faveur de l’opinion de Paul Rivet
sur l’origine océanienne de certaines tribus indiennes du nouveau monde.
Journ. Soc. Américanistes Paris, vol. 24, pp. 225-229, 1932.
Advances the theory that the typhus of the rat had been brought to
America on the boats of the Pacific migrants.
Dicuet, L., Anciennes sépultures indigénes de la Basse-Californie méridionale.
Journ. Soc. Américanistes Paris, n. s., vol. 2, pp. 320-333, 1905.
Among the few cultural objects found by Diguet in the Southern California
caves with the human bones, was a string apron such as described by the
early missionaries as the unique garment of the women among the Pericue
Indians.
Wiener, Cuas., Pérou et Bolivie, Paris, 1880.
Fig. p. 481: “ Peinture d’un vase, trouvé a Santiago de Cao, pres de
Trujillo, réprésentant des macons construisant un mur en briques.” Two
figures with white faces, four black; the white figures look like Whites,
have peaked soft caps (like night caps) ; the black figures—without any
definite racial characteristics—are evidently slaves. Bricks small, like ordi-
nary white man’s bricks.
“ Peinture d’un vase trouvé a Puno représentant des Indiens construisant
une maison.” (P. 471.) No description; three figures with white faces,
two with dark; aire of white-faced figures like that of Whites (espe-
cially last figure on right); that of dark-faced is Indian; features of large
dark figure an Indian, those of small dark figure indistinguishable.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
OETTEKING, Bruno, Anthropomorphologische Beziehungen zwischen der Oster-
insel und America. Eugen Fischer Festband, Zeitschr. Morphol. und An-
throp., vol. 34, pp. 303-313, 1934.
The author points to the resemblances between a skull from Easter
Island and some of those of California and Texas, but draws from this
no unwarrantable conclusions. He accepts the opinion that some contacts
between the Pacific Islanders and the American continent had been realized,
but as to their time, magnitude, and nature, states that all is still problem-
atical. He comments on the improbability of any very ancient or extensive
comings ; America must have been well peopled before any Pacific accretions
could have reached it. A justified objection concerns Oetteking’s assumption
that similarity of cranial and especially vault type means the same deriva-
tion; it may not, in fact, mean even a close racial relation.
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1925. Les origines de homme américain. L’Anthrop., vol. 35, pp. 203-319;
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1926b. Le peuplement de l’Amérique précolombienne. Scientia, vol. 40,
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1926c. Recherche d’une voie de migration des Australiens vers l’Amérique.
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1927. Titres et travaux scientifiques de P. Rivet. Paris. :
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1851-1857. Information respecting the history, condition and prospects of
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Stewart, T. D.
1935. Skeletal remains from southwestern Texas. Amer. Journ. Phys.
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NO. II MELANESIANS AND AUSTRALIANS—HRDLICKA 5/
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58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 12
MOUNT ST. KATHERINE,
AN EXCELLENT SOLAR-RADIATION
STATION
(WiTH Two PLATEs)
BY
GC. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3342)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 5, 1935
The Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
MOUNT ST. KATHERINE,
AN EXCELLENT SOLAR-RADIATION STATION
By €,G, ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(Wire Two PLates)
For many years the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory has
been engaged in measuring solar radiation on mountain peaks in
desert lands, and computing therefrom the solar constant of radia-
tion. By that we mean the intensity of the sun’s radiation as it would
be found by an observer with a perfect instrument, constantly sta-
tioned in free space, outside the earth’s atmosphere, at the earth’s
mean distance from the sun. Our object in this work is to determine
to what degree the sun’s output of radiation is variable, and what
effects its variations produce on weather.
In his “ Report of the Mount Whitney Expedition”, Langley
speaks strongly of the difficulty of measuring solar radiation any-
where as “ formidable”, and that of correcting such measurements
for atmospheric losses as “ perhaps insuperable”. But over 50 years
have passed since Langley made this statement, and new apparatus
and new methods have been devised.
About one million dollars has been spent in making solar measure-
ments at the most favorable stations to be found on the earth. The
most earnest efforts have been made to conquer the difficulties so
forcibly stated by Langley. Many discussions of the sources of error
and the degree of their elimination have been published. Tests and
tested inferences which indicate very high present accuracy have been
disclosed. We have not, indeed, claimed to determine the exact in-
tensity of that ultraviolet part of the solar radiation which never
reaches the earth because it 1s cut off completely in the upper atmos-
phere by ozone. This is, however, but a very small fraction of the
solar constant. This region of the solar spectrum is probably the
most variable. Because its rays are lost at high altitudes, its varia-
tions do not perceptibly affect the variation of the sun as an agency
to be taken account of in weather.
Meteorologists have, I feel, somewhat neglected our proofs of the
accuracy of our work, and have been, I think, somewhat misled by
certain criticisms which have appeared in the literature.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 12
WS)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Hence it is with unusual satisfaction that I am able to report the
close agreement between the results obtained at Mount St. Katherine,
our new station in Egypt, and those obtained on the same days at
Montezuma in Chile. For since these totally independent stations are
in opposite hemispheres, winter at the one coincides with summer at
the other. If the contrasting atmospheric and geometric conditions
of winter and summer do not bring about appreciable discordance, we
may, it would seem, now admit that Langley’s two obstacles are sensi-
bly overcome, and the work which has gone on at Montezuma for
some years may be accepted with still greater confidence than
heretofore.
In the year 1931 I published, under the title “ Weather Dominated
by Solar Changes ”’, evidence that the short-interval changes in the
intensity of the sun’s radiation are of considerable influence in govern-
ing the ordinary fluctuations of weather. The solar-radiation values
used in that paper were exclusively from the Smithsonian station at
Montezuma, Chile. The results seemed to indicate that solar fluctua-
tions of less than 0.5 percent are associated with notable weather
changes. But it was impossible from the observations at one station,
subject to accidental errors of the instruments and observers and to
the difficulty of evaluating the losses in our atmosphere, to be sure
of distinguishing solar changes of less than 0.5 percent from errors
of observation, except when numerous apparently favorable cases
were averaged.
Our station at Table Mountain, Calif., did not then and does not
now yield results as accurate as those of Montezuma. The difficulty
at Table Mountain lies not in the inadequacy of the apparatus or the
observers, but in some obscure invisible changes of atmospheric con-
ditions, whose effects we have hitherto been unable to eliminate
completely. New efforts to improve Table Mountain results are now
on foot.
With the generous support of the National Geographic Society,
an attempt was made about 10 years ago to find and equip a support-
ing station in the Eastern Hemisphere equal to Montezuma. After
a journey to Algeria, Egypt, Baluchistan, and South Africa, I fixed
on Mount Brukkaros in South-West Africa as most suitable. Five
years of observing there demonstrated that owing to high winds,
which carry dust over the mountain, this station was inferior both to
Montezuma and to Table Mountain.
Thereupon, with generous support from Mr. John A. Roebling,
Mr. and Mrs. A. F. Moore made a second journey of exploration
occupying about 20 months. They were equipped with portable in-
1
NO. 12, PL.
VOL. 94,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
SOLAR OBSERVING STATION ON MOUNT ST, KATHERINE, SINAI PENINSULA
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 94 INO-25) PEs 2
VIEW SHOWING THE WEST AND NORTH SIDES OF THE OBSERVATORY
AND THE DWELLING, MOUNT ST. KATHERINE
NO. 12 MOUNT ST. KATHERINE STATION—ABBOT 3
struments, almost, indeed, adequate to observe the solar constant of
radiation, and they spent weeks and even months in observing at
some of the more promising stations. In this way they visited the
Cape Verde Islands, many peaks in South-West Africa, and finally
Mount St. Katherine, about 10 miles from Mount Sinai in Egypt,
having an altitude of about 8,500 feet. No station visited proved as
promising as the last mentioned. Mr. and Mrs. Moore observed there
on about 100 days during the months of March, April, May, June,
and July, 1932. Asa result I was convinced that Mount St. Katherine
had a fair chance of proving to be nearly as satisfactory as Montezuma
in Chile for solar-constant observations.
With further support from Mr. Roebling, and with the generous
gift from the National Geographic Society of the apparatus which
had formerly been installed at Mount Brukkaros, Mount St. Katherine
was occupied in the summer of 1933, and regular observations of the
solar constant of radiation were begun there in December 1933.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the great aid received and the
cordial relations which have prevailed at all times with His Eminence
Porphyrios III, Archbishop of Mount Sinai, and with the monks of
St. Katherine’s Monastery, under his direction, on Mount Sinai.
During Mr. and Mrs. Moore’s reconnaissance, the monks placed an
existing structure on Mount St. Katherine at the disposal of these
observers and brought them supplies. When a permanent occupation
was undertaken, the authorities of the Monastery built the observa-
tory and living quarters of stone on Gebel Zebir, a spur of Mount
St. Katherine, built trails, and developed water. They still continue
to transport supplies to the station from the Red Sea, and are helpful
in uncounted ways.
The station was built, equipped, and occupied under the supervi-
sion of Harlan H. Zodtner, our field director, assisted by Frederick A.
Greeley. Mrs. Zodtner and their two children accompany Mr. Zodt-
ner, and she makes a home for the expedition.
Plates I and 2 show the inhospitable mountain site, and the build-
ings erected by the authorities of the Monastery for the instruments
and observers.
~ Records of the observations made from December 1933 to April
1935 have now been reduced under the direction of my colleague,
L. B. Aldrich. A short method similar to those in use at our stations
Montezuma and Table Mountain was developed by him for St. Kath-
erine. Also some improvement based on additional observations has
recently been made by him in the reduction tables for Montezuma,
and more correct new values, differing by a few thousandths of a
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
calorie from those first computed, have been substituted for the broad-
casted Montezuma observations of the solar constant of radiation
for the past few years.
Our first care was to reduce the St. Katherine results to the same
average scale as Montezuma. The scale depends on the adopted con-
stants of the pyrheliometers, and no favorable weather for determin-
ing these was available in Washington before the departure of the
Egyptian expedition. The scale correction was obtained by comput-
ing the average difference for 180 individual days of good quality
at both stations. The resulting mean difference, 0.034 calorie, was
subtracted from all St. Katherine daily values.
Next the average mean difference of the daily results of good
quality common to the two stations was computed for each month
without regard for sign, as shown in table 1, together with the num-
Taste 1—Monthly Averages of Daily Differences, Montezuma Minus
St. Katherine
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
taee Mean Valuc ...... 7
93 { Number days ..... 4
foah Mean Value ...... 4 8 7 14 12 5 7 Gh II 7 8
9 { Number days ..... 4 7 10 13 5 11 19 19 26 14 GT 8
f Mean Value ...... 13 12 8
935 { Number days ..... 9 4 a, II
General mean, 182 days, 0.0086 calorie.
ber of days represented in each mean. The values given are in
thousandths of a calorie.
Thus the general mean of all the daily differences, numbering 182
in all and covering a period of 17 months, is approximately 0.45 per-
cent of the solar constant, taken as 1.940 calories. Omitting 6 aber-
rant values, it is 0.0079 calorie, or approximately 0.40 percent. Divid-
ing by V2, we find the average daily accidental error of a single
station is 0.30 percent.
It was particularly important to determine whether the daily dif-
ferences, Montezuma minus St. Katherine, show a yearly period.
Accordingly mean values of them were computed monthly having
regard to sign. The results are given in table 2. They are expressed
in thousandths of a calorie.
TaBLE 2—Monthly Averages of Daily Differences, Montezuma Minus
St. Katherine Taken with Regard to Sign
Year Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1933 Mean s6 On ae oe nie 50 BD 50 Sie 5b oo | aH
1934 Mean + 3 —4 o +14 +12 —4 +1 +2 —3 —9 +4 +2
1935 Mean +13 =i —6 —6 c ye xe ae BG 36 ne
er
-
=
<
7 es
= )
*
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
calorie from those first computed, have been substituted for the broad-
casted Montezuma observations of the solar constant of radiation
for the past few years.
Our first care was to reduce the St. Katherine results to the same
average scale as Montezuma. The scale depends on the adopted con-
stants of the pyrheliometers, and no favorable weather for determin-
ing these was available in Washington before the departure of the
Egyptian expedition. The scale correction was obtained by comput-
ing the average difference for 180 individual days of good quality
at both stations. The resulting mean difference, 0.034 calorie, was
subtracted from all St. Katherine daily values.
Next the average mean difference of the daily results of good
quality common to the two stations was computed for each month
without regard for sign, as shown in table 1, together with the num-
Taste 1—Monthly Averages of Daily Differences, Montezuma Minus
St. Katherine
Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
3 Mean Value ...... 7
193 { Number days ..... 4
: Mean Value ...... 4 8 7 14 12 5 7 7 TX 7 8
034 { Number days ..... 4 7 10 13 5 II 19 To) 26) ta {1 8
; Mean Value ...... 13 12 8 12
935 { Number days ..... 9 4 7 II
General mean, 182 days, 0.0086 calorie.
ber of days represented in each mean. The values given are in
thousandths of a calorie.
Thus the general mean of all the daily differences, numbering 182
in all and covering a period of 17 months, is approximately 0.45 per-
cent of the solar constant, taken as 1.940 calories. Omitting 6 aber-
rant values, it is 0.0079 calorie, or approximately 0.40 percent. Divid-
ing by V2, we find the average daily accidental error of a single
station is 0.30 percent.
It was particularly important to determine whether the daily dif-
ferences, Montezuma minus St. Katherine, show a yearly period.
Accordingly mean values of them were computed monthly having
regard to sign. The results are given in table 2. They are expressed
in thousandths of a calorie.
Taste 2.—Monthly Averages of Daily Differences, Montezuma Minus
St. Katherine Taken with Regard to Sign
Year Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
1933 Mean ate a0 56 ote ae oc Se ate aK me ais Ful
1934 Mean + 3 —4 o +14 +12 —4 +1 +2 —3 —9 +4 +2
1935 Mean Sto si —6 —6 : A a6
UNE
1934
we Il |
U=UNSATISFACTORY
3 13 7 2) 25 29 13 17 2) 25 29
fe oct
Fic ercent equals four vertical divisions.
re CHEECH
AChE et ee
faye Vit a NIT at hay dh ny NE
eee ea
jay RaL Lana
.)
NO. 12 MOUNT ST. KATHERINE STATION—ABBOT 5
Except for the large positive values found sporadically in January
1935, and April and May 1934, there seems to be no evidence of ap-
preciable yearly periodicity. For the differences are no larger than
would be expected as the result of unbalanced experimental errors.
During the months just excepted somewhat unsatisfactory conditions
prevailed at one or both stations. This general conclusion is highly
satisfactory. It means that on good days the differences of exposure
of instruments caused by unequal altitudes of the sun and the differ-
ences of procedure and magnitudes in allowing for atmospheric losses
at two independent stations in opposite hemispheres, separated by
nearly a third the circumference of the earth, produce no differential
periodicity in excess of two or three tenths of I percent of the solar
constant of radiation. Accordingly the yearly range of systematic
error for one station, being half as great as the combined ranges of
two stations, is surely negligible. Summer with its increased heat,
haziness, and humidity, opposed by winter with its greater cold, clear-
ness, and dryness, and besides these the observation of the sun at
different angles above the horizon at the constrasted stations, have
altogether failed to produce differences in the results which indicate
that systematic errors are certainly appreciable.
Finally, the individual daily values at the two stations during the
five best months, June to October, 1934, have been tabulated in
table 3, and plotted in figure 1. In computing the mean values and
deviations in the table, I have included a few fairly good values
marked “ unsatisfactory ’’ which were excluded in tables 1 and 2.
A heavy line in the figure gives the best value of the march of the
solar constant of radiation.” The independent results of the two sta-
tions are indicated by a lighter line for Montezuma and a dotted line
for St. Katherine. The close accord shown by these two remote and
contrasting stations cannot but encourage the belief that the observa-
tions of the variability of the sun hitherto reported from Montezuma
are very close to the truth.
Every day but six within this interval of 152 days from June to
October 1934 is covered by good observations at one station or both.
The two stations obviously support each other in displaying in com-
mon many variations of the intensity of solar radiation. The most
conspicuous variation of long period shown has a periodicity of a
little more than 4o days, perhaps even 45 days, and has an amplitude
of about 3 of 1 percent. This effect is doubtless to be associated with
that solar periodicity of about 45 days to which I once drew attention
*The table and diagram were prepared independently and may differ slightly.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
TABLE 3.—Comparative Solar-Constant Results at Montezuma and
St. Katherine
The values given are thousandths of a calorie, and in columns 2, 4, 6 are to be
understood as added to 1.900 calories
Montezuma St. Katherine Montezuma
—_ —_ ao" S.C. Stations minus
1934 Sa: Gr. SiG: Gr. Mean used# _ St. Katherine
June 1
3 45 s- ae as 45 M
4 51 S- 106 U 51 M
5 52 U se 50 52 M :
6 38 Ss- 102 U? 38 M 40
7 40 S) 42 Ss— 41 B —2
8 aa 34 Si 34 K
9 43 S= 43 K
10 51 Ss- 43 Ss— 47 B + 8
II 47 S— 47 K
12 35 Ss— 35 K Se
13 40 sS- 58 s— 49 B —18
14 45 s- 52 S— 48 B = 7
15 45 S a0 45 M Oe
16 49 s- 39 Ss) 44 B +10
17 46 S 39 s— 42 B ae 4
18 37 s- 50 U 43 B —13
19 ite 66 U os bs
20 gt U :
21 39 s- 47 S 43 B =
22 44 sS— 44 K eis
2 45 S— 44 Ss 44 B + 1
24 44 S— 44 K 50
25 as 46 Ss— 46 K ae
26 38 s— 45 Ss— 42 B == 4
27 35 Ss 49 Ss 2 B iit
28 41 S— is Ss— 48 B —I14
29 ee oe
30
July 1 43 Ss— 42 s— 42 B I
2 39 S— 47 Soa 43 B =i 8
3 50 S— 43 Ss 46 B 7
4 % Git s— SI K oe
5 49 S 52 = 50 B = 3
6 46 Ss— 51 s— 48 B —5
7 50 S 5 50 M st
8 48 Ss— ere 48 M
9 fe a 57 Ss— 57 K
10 sa 59 S 59 K
II 50 S 50 K
12 oo i 49 Ss 49 K +e
13 39 S) 35 Ss— 37 B ie
14 49 Ss 40 = 44 B + 9
15 43 S 57 Sa 50 B —14
16 36 Ss— 31 U 34 B Sten)
17 45 Ss 51 Ss— 48 B —— 16
18 45 S 45 = 45 B 0)
19 42 Ss 38 tS) 40 B a 4:
20 38 S— 41 Ss 40 B — 3
21 44 Ss 46 S 45 B —2
22 46 SS 43 S) 44 B + 3
23 40 ) 37 Ss 38 B go)
24 41 S— 39 S) 40 B + 2
2 45 S) 45 Ss 45 B 0
26 49 S 32 S— 40 B +17
27 orc 45 o— 45 K oo
28 ae a3 44 Ss— 44 K
29 ate ae 48 sS— 48 K
30 36 U 47 Ss— 42 B —II
31 44 Ss 39 Ss— 42 B ar G3
a M = Montezuma. K = St. Katherine. B = Both.
NO. 12
1934
Aug.
Sept.
30
4M = Montezuma.
MOUNT ST. KATHERINE STATION—ABBOT
Montezuma
=
SH (Cs Gr.
52 us
46 S
45 J
46 NS)
46 Ss—
46 S—
43 =
41 U
45 SS
51 S—
50 S—
30 S—
59 U
51 Ss
49 =
2 Ss
54 S
49 S
49 Ss
47 Ss
53 =
34 =
36 SS)
37 —
46 Ss—
43 sS—
47 a
43 Ss
47 U
41 S
44 =
39 =
44 S=
50 S—
Rin S
5I S
44 S
47 Se=
46 Ss
38 S
44 =
44 =
38 S—
53 =
44 s=
38 Ss
56 Ss
42 S
31 S—
45 U
42 U
K
TABLE 3.—Continued
St. Katherine
Si (Ge
46
45
41
28
41
41
42
44
= St. Katherine.
Gr.
c=
——
|
Nn NNNNNNnNNUNNH WNHWNUNANDW
S—
S.C. Stations
Mean
46
45
41
40
used #
DH WW RR RR OR Oe OR
Montezuma
minus
St. Katherine
Past li smart
MrwOo oh Or:
rl
| +++
Oowvowo ff
a
es .
|
ANDHAH-:
l+lt+11 |
|
wWtOWH tH TOO ON
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Montezuma
1934 SC: Gr.
Oct: = 41 S—
2 46 Ss—
3 44 S
4 44 —
5 49 S=—
6 42 Ss—
7 45 Ss
8 50 U
9 52 s—
10 34 S—
II 39 S$
12 50 Ss—
13 37 Ss
14 47 S
15 50 S)
16 a6 ac
17 45 Si
18 45 Ss—
19 37 =
20 54 S—
21 55 S
2 54 S
23 51 S
24 56 S)
25 46 S)
2 41 Ss
2 53 Ss
28 49 sS—
29 ite ae
30 53 U
31 52 U
Nov. 1 53 sS—
2 51 S—
3 58 S—
4 ae GK
5 58 S
6 57 sS—
7 42 Ss
8 50 SS)
9 os ae
10 63 sS—
II 45 U
I2 =
13 or
14 50 S
15 59 =
16 Sc
17
18 2 50
19 53 Ss
20 53 S—
21 44 Ss
Be 44 S=
23 55 S—
25 52 Ss—
26 50 S)
2 53 s—
28 47 Ss
29 43 U
30 ne 5
aM = Montezuma.
TABLE 3.-—Continued
St. Katherine
a M#U!"V“
Spee Gr.
54 sS—
56 Ss
5 S
52 Ss
56 Ss
65 S—
52 S—
49 S)
46 sS—
51 s—
47 =
45 S—
47 Ss
19 U
34 U
43 s—
65 Ss—
54 Ss
67 U
82 U?
92 Wir
eas U?
52 U
52 s=
51 sS—
3 Ss
55 Sa
56 S—
67 lef
47 S—
04 U
noes
45 Ss—
52 Ss—
58 U
46 S
50 S
58 S—
58 sS—
52 S—
44 Ss—
48 sc
43 S—
54 —
37 S
66 s—
54 Ss
K = St. Katherine.
» Montezuma given greater
weight in the mean.
S.C. Stations
Mean
48
B = Both.
used @
Pees Pew nde dW Wd
b
=
Wit dh: bee
OAR ee:
AnDWDWWne nee Ss HW nAnW eS:
VOL. 94
Montezuma
minus
St. Katherine
—13
—TO
ais}
++
cane:
NO. I2 MOUNT ST. KATHERINE STATION—ABBOT 9
as having occurred in the year 1924." Many short interval fluctuations
are also supported by both stations.
There is little to choose between the two stations as to the smooth-
ness (t.e., freedom from wild values) of their curves during this
interval of 5 months. St. Katherine yields a few more days than
Montezuma. As the average daily discrepancy between the stations
during these 5 months is only 0.007 calorie, we infer that the average
accidental error of a single station then was but 0.005 calorie, or
4 of I percent.
A careful record of conditions at St. Katherine has been kept
under Mr. Zodtner’s direction. It is set forth in table 4.
On the whole it appears that Mount St. Katherine, except for a
greater average wind velocity during the usual hours of observing,
and greater haziness during the spring months, is equally as favorable
a station for solar-constant observations as Montezuma. Moreover,
the two drawbacks just mentioned do not seem to have lowered the
quality of the daily St. Katherine observations below those of Monte-
zuma. Thus far her numbers of days of good observing quality per
year have slightly exceeded those of Montezuma, so that St. Katherine
may be ranked quite as high on the whole as Montezuma.
In my paper ‘‘ Weather Dominated by Solar Changes ”, cited above,
I indicated the dependence of weather on solar fluctuations of short
interval. The results seemed to point to a possibility that at least at
some stations and during some months of the year forecasts of weather
for 10 days in advance might profitably be based on solar-radiation
observations if these could be of sufficient accuracy and continuity.
At that time it seemed doubtful if stations could be found whose
combined results would yield on nearly every day in the year solar-
constant values accurate to % of I percent as regards accidental error,
which seemed to be the minimum requirement for the purpose sug-
gested. But not only do our two best stations now nearly reach that
desired accuracy, but the impending substitution of Angstrém type
pytheliometers at both stations as secondary instruments will prob-
ably increase this accuracy.
For nearly 20 years H. H. Clayton has worked assiduously on the
problem of the correlation of solar variation with weather. In a
recent paper ° crammed with statistical results, he states: ‘“ In short,
these extensive data, covering all parts of the world, prove that solar
See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 85, no. 1, fig. 3, 1931.
* Clayton, H. H., World weather and solar activity. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 89, no. 15, p. 24, 1034.
VOL. 94
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NO. 12 MOUNT ST. KATHERINE STATION—ABBOT Teh
variation is an important weather factor, even the dominating one,
as also appears from figures 13 and 14 and 23-26.”
Our experience in selecting and operating solar-radiation stations
has now placed us in a position where we might with relatively mod-
erate additional financial support set up several additional solar-radia-
tion stations competent to produce first-rate results. We could then
furnish almost every day in the year solar-constant values with acci-
dental errors not exceeding % of 1 percent. The conclusions of Clay-
ton and ourselves relative to the dependence of weather on solar
variation seem to have reached such a stage of probability as to
warrant this additional expense in the interest of producing a new
tool of possible value for meteorology.
en ay oe
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 13
MORPHOLOGY OF THE COLEOPTEROUS
FAMILY STAPHYLINIDAE
BY
RIGHARD E. BLACKWELDER
Stanford University, California
(PUBLICATION 3343)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARGH 2, 1936
a) 2 ae ee VPP Owe eee
The Lord Baltimore reas
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE COLEOPTEROUS
FAMILY STAPH YLINIDAE
By RICHARD E. BLACKWELDER
Stanford University, California
CONTENTS
PAGE
MTG UCL OTIS AN resane TN anh Se eset oecatranh oe ettan acted 8 eae et een tes or MRT RU 2
dihemliterattnesonsthesstaphylinidaess see eeeeeen eerie ae nieeiee 3
Neate rete Iie ater street Sorc nh ke tae perty Ne atnisaee sy one x ere dsrc eee 4
Rrepananonmoleimeatenial eee eerie rine ioe ane e 4
UMTS ERATOR S OR fee ios chats PSE dee eins foe aeRO tee a tat on eae oon 6
Mornpiolocyeotathemstaphylimidacme as eae ereeinciece alee eran Fi
Generaleconsidenations scree aston tra eee an oe ee eee 7
Structure ota Lepresenitative SpeClesneetieriae nica oeeeee eee 9
ese mhea dance neers siete ert ae sileee aia ee ek ee am crane SS ce, er 9
dinekappendaresrotthen header sere eta eet ates ar en nee 13
BIUITes ALEMILOEMLINT® «5/056 Me cic ae ork Eicitvcue) saat uence cesrarchee lara ee RR 17
PI eMCE LevilENcerte te thsvels ce SER Sen O ROCs bo Ra ee ne Ee 18
them ones aces ch-s nerchsruoe oier nicletearsicieeie aiart ieee cae Gey ee 18
pbherencdothonaxmas ssc be ecu wore eis tenets coche eID ee ne 28
sihiesanpendacesno tathemthoraxceee sence eon eeee ee aeeeennnee 31
Ig e eG WAITS Si Ae aineascace eer scsks ced ous tec Aeros uae Saas Sea cc 31
Tiber C'S ears taic's-crorensnenekcth, sina hese os cose SP CISIeyoERG aeet te eee Ie 36
Mlsbve mally @triennt reeves ebis, evs one enero cece cise ais vara een oar Se es ncaa eee 42
Meee enicalltaie: dh ty sa tele la ere e ecehere rare eet oea MUS eee ane: 47
Comparativestmorpnolocyolethe mati liyaeems chilean eee 49
Aynechiea diem sia, \art coasts pact secheie staicpenshe Rays Ota cee aE eee 49
Thecanpendavessol the: head’ 25. casio ane ne oso one lee fee nee 56
sect hi tcisee ave ors bic Scpesaabe cing snd peragate es mati Is aa et Mae REY 65
AWTS (SESS ae Aaa IN Pere One De SRO a ONS shes ene ees oS aOR: 73
Ahead OmMeltwancas case eke eee ae ek ee Re ena 77
Abeer enitallitcimen secrets ec oeee eee arta uate aroma ee Ren eS 81
DISCUSS GT eta Gaditocten seen rca mea eea er tnots oloics its occa ake ac iterate 86
Waki ehitel TNMeS Oli Garber. os coocnccsonoauodananaunuoauneocun 86
@haracterseavyailablestomclassiicatlonweeeraeerne crt eee ener 87
The value of existing classifications and some suggestions concerning
(aU e509 eee ee Ren So oe oe re Ae eer Res a als Seen Dein eeu OOo a 89
MBI SEM OLE SPECIES ASE T CC ae. rac cs opera aie savepe ts cne- eT AIRE een ne ays too ten eNotes cesvier ee go
Nhbreviationsmusedmonmticlunesmoyaatem entice cree set eebeenine rice 92
Bia) heaven chal akieveis Sth aime Orne eI BiG nanC ORE Ot DOIG CD MOS enn On Soe ce mOmin 905
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No, 13
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
INTRODUCTION
One of the chief justifications for the study of the morphology
of any group of organisms is the importance of this branch of the
science in the classification of those organisms. Morphology is one of
the important foundations of classification because it supplies the
easiest and most usable key to the relationships between individuals.
The discovery and evaluation of these relationships is an important
part of our attempts at classification.
The purpose of such a morphological study as this may be stated
as follows: In the first place, it is an attempt to increase the knowl-
edge of the external morphology of the Staphylinidae as a basis for
a better understanding of their classification. It is furthermore an
attempt to add something to the knowledge of the morphology of
beetles in general. This very large and important field has been so
poorly explored up to the present time that any attempts to make ad-
ditions are not only justified but very much to be desired.
In any very large group of animals the number of species whose
morphology can be investigated in detail is necessarily limited by con-
siderations of time and expense of publication. Any conclusions drawn
from the comparatively few representatives examined must neces-
sarily be only tentative and suggestive, and they must await the less
detailed examination of the numerous other species for confirmation.
The large order Coleoptera is one of the best known of all the groups
of insects. One of the largest included families is the Staphylinidae,
containing approximately one-tenth of all the known species of beetles.
The study of this family, however, has been relatively neglected
and the list of known species probably does not include one-fifth of
those actually in existence, and even from North America it is doubt-
ful.if over one-half the species have been recorded. This condition
is due to the difficulties which attend the study of this family when
it is carried on by the methods formerly employed by many ento-
mologists—methods which fail to provide an adequate knowledge of
the comparative morphology of the group. These difficulties vanish
in large part when the study is approached in the right manner.
To a student of the Coleoptera desiring to undertake a comparative
morphological study of some group as a basis for its classification,
the family Staphylinidae has much to commend it. It is sufficiently
large to show a wide range of structure; the total number of species
is large enough to provide ample material for the full development
of one’s ideas of the principles of classification; a great number of
its members are common enough to be very easily obtained; the ma-
a
NO: 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER 3
jority of specimens are small enough to be suited to examination with
the compound microscope; and, not the least, very little has been
known of its fundamental structure and relationships.
The present study deals with a family which contains nearly 20,000
known species. The fact that it would be impossible to study all of
these in detail is a very potent additional reason for studying a few
representatives as well as possible with the goal of establishing a
foundation and working outline of the external morphology which
can later be used to support a classification or which may be tested
and enlarged by further investigations on additional material.
It gives me pleasure gratefully to acknowledge the help and en-
couragement of Prof. G. F. Ferris, under whom this study has been
carried out. I am also much indebted to R. E. Snodgrass, who has read
the manuscript and given many very helpful suggestions.
THE LITERATURE ON THE STAPHYLINIDAE
Ina brief review of the literature relating to the family Staphylinidae
it is not necessary to go back beyond the works of Erichson in 1839
and 1840. Previous to his time most of the work done was a bare
description of new genera and species. In the “ Kafer der Mark
Brandenburg” in 1839 Erichson began the studies that resulted the
following year in his masterly volume “‘ Genera et Species Staphy-
linorum”’. This work contains a fairly complete classification of the
family, with keys to genera, and descriptions of all species known at
that time. It is undoubtedly one of the masterpieces of early systematic
entomology.
From the time of Erichson there has been a continual stream of
descriptions of new genera and species, published in many languages
and in hundreds of different periodicals. Many of the most important
studies of the staphylinids have been made in connection with large
faunal monographs. But by far the largest part of the information
published concerning this family has never been assembled in any way,
with the one exception of the bibliographic catalogue in the publica-
tion of Junk and Schenkling, the “ Coleopterorum Catalogus ”. The
student finds it necessary continually to go to the original publica-
tions, and he finds many of the keys for identification unsatisfactory
or incomplete.
Any knowledge of the morphology of this family is exceedingly
difficult to obtain from the literature. Most of the discussions are re-
stricted to a certain species or to a certain group of structures on that
species. Practically no real comparative study has been made of even
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
one set of characters, the only possible exception to this being the
work of Eichelbaum and of Sharp and Muir on the genitalia.
MATERIAL
The material available for this study includes chiefly specimens
from North America supplemented by additional ones from Central
America and Europe. Wherever possible one of the common species
was selected.
Eichelbaum (1909) listed 15 subfamilies of the Staphylinidae. In
these he recognized 43 tribal groups. The present study includes
representatives of 10 subfamilies and 25 tribes. The subfamilies of
which representatives were not available are: Megalopinae, Lepto-
typhlinae, Euaesthetinae, Trichophyinae, and Cephaloplectinae. Be-
sides these, the tribes not represented include: Neophonini, Apa-
teticini, Platyprosopini, Pygostenini, Trichopseniini, Deinopsini, Gym-
nusini, Myllaenini, Pronomaeini, Diglottini, Hygronomini, and
Digrammini.
The species selected in each tribe are not considered as actual rep-
resentatives or types but merely as members of that group and ex-
amples of it. In several cases more than one species has been used
within a tribe because of the great variation in certain characters,
but lack of time and space has prevented the further extension of
the list.
It is very much to be regretted that members of the subfamily
Aleocharinae are so difficult of identification while so abundant every-
where. Only the larger tribes are represented in this material, and
this means that the aberrant and unusual forms have not been studied
or included in the comparisons.
All the American species were identified by the writer. Most of
the European species were obtained from Emmerich Reitter of Vienna.
PREPARATION OF MATERIAL
The preparation of material so that it can be adequately studied
is one of the most important steps in the solution of any systematic
problem. In the treatment of the specimens first consideration should
be given to the making available of all characters which might be
of value in the study. How far this ideal is from the condition ac-
tually attained in much systematic work has been discussed at length
by Ferris (1928), and a similar inadequacy is often shown in morpho-
logical studies.
NO. 13 STAPILYLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER 5
Three general means of mounting and preservation have been em-
ployed by entomologists. These are: On pins, in fluid such as alcohol,
and on microscope slides. According to Chamberlin (1931) :
It may be said that the important thing in the preparation of material for
study is not the following of any particular set method, but rather the treatment
of material in such a way that the structures which it is necessary to employ
in systematic work (that is, those structures, regardless of size or obscurity,
which the study of comparative morphology shows to be significant for such
purposes) shall be rendered clearly visible.
In no group of insects will either of the first two methods alone
suffice to this end, and in all of the groups of minute insects the slide
preparations, supplemented in certain cases by the other methods,
have unquestionably proved to give not merely better results but the
only reasonably complete and satisfactory ones.
The Staphylinidae may properly be regarded as a group of minute
insects, as only a comparatively small percentage of them exceed 8 mm
in length, and the average length is probably below 5 mm. The actual
size ranges from slightly over 5 cm down to less than I mm.
The usual methods of mounting small beetles on pins and paper
points permit an examination of only the larger and more obvious
characters, and is utterly useless in any detailed study of the mor-
phology. It is essential in this type of work that the separate elements
of the body wall be carefully dissected and perhaps examined with
transmitted light, and this requires a considerable preparation of the
material.
The method of preparation worked out for the present study is
outlined below. It is a modification of the practice generally employed
in the study of minute insects such as scale insects and lice.
Because of the methods used in the past in the examination and
description of species and the establishment of classifications, it is
impossible to correlate with the literature identifications in the Staphy-
linidae made from slide preparations. For this reason specimens
should first be mounted on fine paper points on pins in the usual
manner and identified as accurately as possible using all available aids.
The special technique is as follows: The specimen is dropped into
a 10 percent solution of KOH and heated to near the boiling point
for about half a minute. This is to soften the body sufficiently to
prevent breakage when the elytra and wings are dissected off, which
is done by removing the specimen to water in a watch glass and work-
ing under the binocular microscope with fine dissecting needles. The
abdomen is now dissected away behind the metasternum, the head
separated from the prothorax, and the prothorax from the remainder
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
of the thorax. These four parts of the body are replaced in the KOH
and allowed to boil gently for about one minute. The elytra and
wings are transferred from the water to 95 percent alcohol for several
minutes and then mounted as described below. After boiling the body,
it is removed again to water, where the disintegrated viscera may be
pressed out and the antennae, mouthparts, legs, and genitalia dissected
off. If any of these parts (notably the head and thorax) are too heav-
ily pigmented to permit easy study with transmitted light they should
now be placed in a 3 percent solution of hydrogen peroxide to which
has been added a small amount of ammonia (about one drop per cm *
of peroxide). It is essential that fresh ammonia be used and that the
mixture be not allowed to stand before using. It quickly loses its
efficacy after being mixed. Two to six hours in this solution will
suffice to bleach the darkest sclerites, and this treatment has the great
advantage of leaving the edges and sutures darker than the rest. These
parts are now placed again in the boiling KOH for a few seconds to
remove the peroxide and are then returned to the water to remove
the KOH. Now all parts are transferred to alcohol for several minutes
and then mounted. The most satisfactory mounting medium known
to me is euparal. (This can be obtained at a considerably reduced
price under the name of Diaphane.) Specimens are arranged in a drop
of the medium on the slide and a cover glass gently pressed down
until all surplus medium is squeezed out. If necessary the cover
glass may be supported by means of paper rings, which prevent the
flattening and consequent distortion of the objects. The slides are then
labeled and dried for two or three days.
Material prepared in this way has a few disadvantages. The parts
can be studied only in the position in which they are mounted. The
color and general shape or habitus of the insect is lost in large measure.
But these are much more than offset by the ease of examination under
the compound microscope and the fact that one can approach the ideal
of being able to see and use all of the characters that are actually
present on the body of the beetle.
ILLUSTRATIONS
The illustrations, which form an important part of this study, are
intended to serve primarily two purposes. First, they illustrate the
detailed anatomy of a typical staphylinid, together with that of other
special structures found only on other species; and second, they il-
lustrate briefly the variations within the family of each of the struc-
tures treated. They have been prepared with these two aims in mind,
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER i
and the figures showing variation have for the most part not been
burdened with interpretations of structure. It is believed that this
latter will be obvious upon comparison with the morphological fig-
ures. As far as possible, all unusual or extreme structures are described
mothe text.
The figures have all been drawn directly from slide mounts by
means of a camera lucida. No attempt has been made to indicate or
calculate the magnification attained, as this is believed to be purely
incidental and of no importance to a knowledge of the morphology.
Figures have been drawn to uniform sizes to show comparable details
in the different species regardless of the original size.
The abbreviations used are the same on all the figures and are listed
and explained at the end of the paper. They are for the most part the
same as those adopted by Snodgrass in his recent papers.
It should be borne in mind that each figure is more or less of a
composite, having been checked with as many specimens as possible
and frequently drawn from parts of several.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE STAPHYLINIDAE
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Because of the fact that there does not exist any single work which
deals in any considerable degree of completeness with the comparative
morphology of the Coleoptera as a whole, it has not been possible
to adopt any one system of study or any single terminology. In the
case of those structures that have been separately studied in a compre-
hensive way, an attempt has been made to follow that work in general.
A very large part of the structure of beetles, however, has never
been monographed comparatively, with the result that the present
study has necessarily been built upon the basic works of Snodgrass
and others, in which the Coleoptera are treated only as a whole along
with the other orders of insects.
In the case of the structure of the head capsule, the interpretation
adopted here is that worked out by Snodgrass and Boving. Its ap-
plications to the order Coleoptera have not previously been presented.
The orientation of the legs is a matter of common inconvenience.
The fundamental position of the leg is assumed to be as follows:
The leg is extended at right angles to the body, with each part ex-
tended distally and the empodium of the pretarsus facing downward,
the coxa suspended from the body by the condyles at its proximal
end. Following this orientation, it is possible to see four chief aspects
of the leg, the anterior and the posterior, and the dorsal and the
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ventral. The bicondylar joints all have one condyle anterior and one
posterior with the exception of the trochantero-femoral joint which
has one dorsal and one ventral. The claws are thus placed one anterior
and one posterior.
An isolated leg can usually be readily oriented. The shape of the
coxa will immediately determine the thoracic segment from which
it came. Whether the leg came from the right or left side of the
animal can frequently be told by the vestiture. On the coxae the vesti-
ture is generally lacking on the posterior aspect except as the tip. The
orientation of the posterior coxae can often be recognized at a glance
by the expansion over the base of the trochanter, which occurs only
on the anterior aspect.
The wing venation has been interpreted according to the scheme
proposed by Forbes (1922). There was some hesitation, however,
in accepting this course, as it is believed by some writers that the
darker bands in the distal part of the wing do not represent veins
that are in any way homologous with any veins in other insect wings.
Certain parts can, however, be definitely correlated with other beetle
wings, so that the classification of the veins of this family is probably
as correct as that for the order as a whole. The spiracles of the
thorax are four in number. One pair is situated in the conjunctivum
between the prothorax and mesothorax on the ventral aspect, and
the other pair is in the membrane just anterior to the base of the hind
wing on the dorsal aspect. They are totally different in structure ex-
ternally, the former resembling the abdominal spiracles very closely
in appearance. They belong to the mesothorax and metathorax
respectively.
The abdomen is 10-segmented in all staphylinids, and probably in
all beetles in a morphological sense. The last two or three segments
form the genitalia, whereas the first two are frequently much reduced
or united to the metathorax. In all staphylinids the first segment is
present only on the dorsum and is more closely united to the meta-
thorax than to the second abdominal segment. It is practically always
dissected off with the thorax.
As far as the family Staphylinidae is concerned only the genitalia
have been treated in anything approaching a complete comparative
study, and even in that case there has been no comprehensive sum-
mary except that given for the males by Sharp and Muir (1912).
Their terminology has been followed chiefly, though it is rather arti-
ficial and obscures the true relationships. In the case of the genitalia
of the female, it has been found necessary to modify somewhat the
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 9
interpretation of Tanner (1927). He has considered only one staphy-
linid, Creophilus villosus.
The spiracles are the chief landmarks of the abdomen. They occur
on each segment from one to eight. They are in all insects morpho-
logically a part of the tergum and in these forms are generally actually
in the tergites. A curious error is made regarding these by Leconte
and Horn (1883), as follows: “The breathing pores, or spiracles,
are situated in the connecting membranes, or in the upper inflexed
portions of the ventral segments.” In the present family, at least,
they are always very definitely placed in the tergal elements.
STRUCTURE OF A REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES
The species Creophilus villosus (Grav.) has been selected to be
the subject of detailed investigation for the following reasons: It is
one of the commonest, most widespread, and most readily attainable
of American staphylinids; it very closely resembles related species
that are common throughout most of the world; it is a typical staphy-
linid, being very similar to the type genus of the family; and it has
been used, more than any other staphylinid species, as the basis for
previous studies of the morphology of this family.
THE HEAD
The walls of the head are continuously heavily sclerotized on the
dorsal, lateral, and ventral aspects. These walls thus form a solid
capsule (fig. 1 F) with an opening at the posterior end, the foramen
magnum. The walls of this capsule are formed of certain sclerites
which have become united, with a corresponding obliteration of the
sutures between them.
The dorsal aspect of the head (fig. 1 A) is occupied by a single
large sclerite extending anteriorly from the rim of the foramen mag-
num (for) to the membranous anteclypeus (aclp) and occupying the
entire width of the head. This area is the epicranium (ep) and is
formed by the obliteration of sutures which would divide it into frons,
vertex, genae, postgenae, and occiput. The occiput (oc) is represented
by a narrow band around the dorsal and lateral rims of the foramen
magnum, but it is undifferentiated from the vertex (vx). This is
due to the obliteration of the occipital suture. The ventral continua-
tions of the occiput on the sides of the head are the postgenae
(fig. 1 A,E, pge). Since the occipital sutures, if present, would ex-
tend to the base of the labium and maxillae, it follows that the areas
included by them, the postgenae, occupy in this species the two regions
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
on the sides of the gula (gw) and extending from the maxillary
articulation to the foramen magnum and the lateral extensions of
the occiput, from which they are not separated. The vertex itself
occupies nearly the entire dorsal aspect of the head and most of the
Fic. 1—Morphology of the head of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, dorsal and ventral aspects of head with appendages removed. B, minute
setae and pores from terminal segment of antenna. C, detail of joint between the
tenth and eleventh segments of antenna. D, antenna. FE, lateral aspect of head
with appendages removed. F, sagittal section of head to show tentorium. G, dorsal
aspect of labrum. H, ventral aspect of labrum.
lateral aspects as well. The area between the eyes, from the anterior
tentorial pits to the occiput and the areas immediately behind and be-
neath the eyes as far as the postgenae are all a part of this sclerite
(fundamentally a pair of sclerites, one on each side of the midline
INO. hs STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER II
or epicranial suture). The term gena is used to designate the area
(fig. 1 E, ge) on the lateral aspect of the head between the eye and
the dorsal articulation of the mandible. It is not set off as a separate
sclerite. The frons is present as an area in all insects to be defined
by the frontal sutures and the epistomal suture, if present, but bear-
ing the origin of the labral retractor muscles. In the present species
neither the frontal nor the epistomal sutures are present, and the
frons is therefore represented only in a triangular area behind the
line of the anterior tentorial pits.
The clypeus is divided into two distinct sclerites, the postclypeus
(fig. 1A, E, pelp) and the anteclypeus (aclp). The postclypeus is
fused with the frons at the line of the anterior tentorial pits and
extends around the antennal fossae. The anteclypeus is a membranous
strip between the anterior margin of the postclypeus and the labrum
(Im).
The labrum (fig. 1 G, H) is a broad bilobed sclerite attached to the
cephalic end of the clypeus. It is continuous with the rest of the dorsal
surface of the head. Its anterior dorsal margin is clothed with both
stout and fine setae, whereas the remainder of its dorsal surface is
smooth and less heavily sclerotized. The ventral surface is covered
with very fine recumbent hairs, with two large areas of cross-hatched
ridges. The ventroposterior projections of the labrum are the tormae
(tor) and carry the insertion of the retractor muscles of the labrum.
Lying between and posterior to the tormae and caudad of the ven-
tral surface of the labrum is an H-shaped sclerite (fig. 1G, H) which
appears to articulate with the inner faces of the tormae. Its posterior
arms taper regularly to a stubby point, from which arise a cluster of
very fine fibers or hairs. This sclerite is apparently united by mem-
brane to the tormae.
The epipharynx is apparently not present as even a definite area
unless possibly it is represented by the two ribbed areas on the ventral
surface of the labrum (fig. 1 H).
The ventral’ aspect of the head (fig. 1A) 1s occupied by three
sclerites or regions. These are a median and two lateral areas. The
first is the gula (gu), a narrow longitudinal sclerite with an expansion
at the posterior end. The lateral areas are the ventral prolongations
of the caudolateral parts of the epicranium. These represent the post-
genae and the subocular parts of the vertex as described above.
The gula (fig. 1 A, gu) is believed to be a sclerotization of the neck
membrane posterior to the submentum and the tentorial pits and be-
tween the ventral extensions of the postocciput. The cephalic migra-
tion of the tentorial pits from the foramen magnum has extended the
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
postoccipital sutures anteriorly along the ventral aspect as the gular
sutures (gs). The result is a gular sclerite which is narrow between
the postgenae, expands posteriorly along the ventral edge of the
foramen magnum, and is continuous with the submentum anteriorly
at the line of the tentorial pits. Posteriorly the gula closes the base
of the foramen magnum and is in close contact with the cervical
sclerites. :
The anterior portion of the ventral aspect of the cranium bears on
its inner surface a thickening or ridge known as the crassa (fig. 1 A,
cr) (MacGillivray, 1923). This ridge extends from the region of the
maxillary articulation to the mesal side of the ventral articulation
of the mandible, and it is presumed to function as a support of this
latter structure. Stickney (1923) interprets this as the occipital suture,
and if this interpretation is correct, the ridge would be properly called
the hypostomal ridge.
A number of other sclerites are present on the head of many
beetles, but they are small and relatively unimportant. The oculata
(fig. 1 E, ol) is a wide ringlike shelf on the inside periphery of the
eye. There is apparently in this species no sclerite that can be identi-
fied with the antennal sclerite, which is normally situated within the
antennal fossa.
Certain parts of the head capsule are modified to form rather
definite condyles for the movable parts. These are of considerable
importance because they are usually very definite and permanent in
position and are thus very useful landmarks for identifying the other
parts. The antenna generally articulates with the head by means ‘of
an obscure sclerite, the antennal sclerite, mentioned above. This has
not been observed, but the condyle is probably present in some form
as an articulating surface. The mandible articulates with the head by
means of two condyles, forming the dorsal (fig. 2 J, mad) and the
ventral (fig. 2 F, mav) articulations. The dorsal articulation is formed
by a rounded protuberance, situated in front of the eye at the antero-
lateral corner of the head, which fits into an hemispherical acetabulum
on the mandible. The ventral condyle is situated on the mandible
and articulates with an acetabulum at the anterior end of the crassa
(cr). The articulation of the maxilla is a small condyle on the mesal
end of the cardo, which articulates in a small concavity on the inner
face of the postgena at the mesal end of the crassa (cr). In the present
species this condyle is undeveloped and is not actually in contact with
the postgena.
The median anterior part of the lateral aspect of the head is oc-
cupied by the compound eye (fig. 1 E, e). This organ is ovate in
INOS HLS STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER 13
outline, somewhat convex, and the facets are moderate in relative size.
The oculata is large, occupying nearly three-quarters of the area of
the eye, as already described. No ocular suture or independent ocular
sclerite has been observed, but there is a narrow unpigmented band
separating the faceted part from the vertex. Ocelli are not present.
The vestiture of the head consists of a moderately dense clothing
of setae along the posterior margin dorsally, with a few very large
and long setae placed as follows: A pair at the anterior edge of the
vertex at the corners of the postclypeus; one above the base of each
antenna; one near the middle of the inner edge of the eye; and one
to three in the area between the eye and the posterior constriction.
The posterior areas are continued around onto the lateral and some-
what onto the ventral surface.
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD
The appendages of the head consist of a pair of antennae, a pair
of mandibles, a pair of maxillae, a hypopharynx, and a labium. With
the exception of the antennae, which are sensory in function, these
are all concerned with ingestion of food and are known collectively
as the mouthparts or trophi.
The antennae (fig. 1 D) are situated at the anterior edge of the
epicranium. They are inserted:into an opening or antennal fossa
(fig. 1 A, af). They are 11-segmented and feebly clavate, with the
first segment elongated, as long as the second and third together.
The segments diminish in length from the first to the fifth, and in-
crease in width from the sixth to the tenth. The seventh to eleventh
segments are covered completely with minute setae, and the eleventh
alone has these setae interspersed with groups of minute pores (fig.
1B). The outer joints (fig. 1 C) allow only a limited amount of
movement, whereas the basal ones permit a much wider latitude. All
the segments have a sparse vestiture of longer setae which are situated
rather at random.
The mandibles (fig. 2 F, J) are prominent, falciform jaws, heavily
sclerotized, and each articulated with the anterior margin of one side
of the head. The expanded proximal part is produced into a slender,
curved distal part which tapers to a blunt point. The lateral margin
of the latter is regularly continuous with the curved outer margin of
the basal part. The anteromesal corner of the basal part is produced
to form two small, bluntly acute teeth (mat). The notch separating
the two teeth of the left mandible (fig. 2 J) is nearly three times as
deep as the corresponding notch on the right mandible (fig. 2 F).
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The more distal tooth of the right mandible is actually double, there
being another smaller tooth immediately beneath it, arising from the
ventral surface of the mandible rather than from the inner edge as do
the others (fig. 2 F). There is no definite molar surface on the inner
face of the mandible, but the edge is divided longitudinally so that a
groove is formed, extending from the dorsal condyle (mad) to the
base of the tooth (mat). In the floor of this groove and about mid-
way on the inner face is an oblong foramen (prf) from which ex-
tends a membranous lobe or prostheca (prth). This lobe is nearly
one-third as long as the entire mandible and half as wide, and its
inner edge is regularly divided into a series of equal lobes, about 15 to
20 in number. The entire structure is densely clothed with minute
hairs.
Near the lateral edge of the dorsal aspect of the mandible is a
shallow fold (fig. 2 J, maf) extending from the condylar region at the
base to the end of the expanded proximal part of the mandible. Under
this fold are the openings of a series of pores (spe) which apparently
communicate with the interior cavity of the mandible. They lie nearly
parallel to the dorsal surface of the mandible and project mesad from
the fold. They may be branched (fig. 2E) or unbranched, but the
tip of each branch forms a capsule, the walls of which are traversed
by numerous small canaliculi (can), which are little larger than the
canaliculi normally found in most sclerotized integuments.
Just distad of the anterior end of the fold (fig. 2 J, maf) and at
the lateral edge of the mandible there appears to be another pore
(mp). This is not connected with the serial pores of the fold, but
under high magnification is seen to be merely a thinning of the sclerotic
wall in the form of a narrow sac or tube on the inside and a slight
indentation of the outer surface (fig. 21). The reason for the ex-
istence of this structure as well as of the serial pore organ is entirely
unknown to me.
The mandible is articulated with the head by means of one dorsal
and one ventral condyle. The dorsal one is situated on the gena (fig.
2J, mad) and the ventral one on the mandible (fig. 2 F, mav). The
dorsal articulation is an hemispherical acetabulum on the mandible
which fits over a spherical projection of the head capsule immediately
in front of the eye. The posterior articulation is a spherical projec-
tion on the base of the ventral or outer face of the mandible. It fits
‘into a crescent-shaped acetabulum at the anterior extremity of the
crassa.
The maxillae (fig. 2G) are situated immediately ventrad of the
mandibles at each side of the labium. Each is composed of four parts,
INO? £3 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 15
cd :
Fic. 2—Morphology of the trophi of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, ventral aspect of labium, without palpi. B, labial palpus. C, detail of tip of
terminal segment of labial palpus. D, dorsal aspect of hypopharynx. E, detail of
one of the serial pores from dorsal side of mandible. F, ventral aspect of right
mandible, showing prostheca. G, ventral aspect of left maxilla. H, maxillary
palpus. I, detail of median pore organ from outer edge of mandible. J, dorsal
aspect of left mandible.
2
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the body of the maxilla, separated into several sclerites, two distal
lobes, the galea (ga) and the lacinia (/c), and the maxillary palpus
(map). The body of the maxilla is composed fundamentally of three
parts, the cardo, the stipes, and the palpifer. The cardo (cd) is the
basal sclerite, which articulates at its mesal edge with the subgenae.
The stipes (st) is secondarily divided into two sclerites, apparently
the proximal or mesal one bearing the large lacinia (/c) and the galea
(ga), while the distal or lateral one bears the palpus on its extremity.
The lacinia is a large, densely hairy lobe, which is movable on the
stipes but is apparently united to a considerable extent to the base of
the galea (sg). The galea is covered with hairs similarly to the lacinia,
but is placed distad of that organ and curved around the tip of it.
The lateral corner of the galea bears a few long setae. The stipes
bears the maxillary palpus on its extremity without the differentiation
of a definite palpifer, the first segment of the palpus being joined to it
by a membrane. The palpus (fig. 2H) is four-segmented and nearly
filiform. The basal segment is very small and is strongly geniculate.
This arrangement allows the second segment to extend laterally at
right angles to the axis of the maxilla. The second segment is rather ~
swollen and larger than any of the others, and it is somewhat arcuate.
The third segment is narrow at the base but expands at the apex to
approximately the same size as the second. It extends cephalad from
the tip of the second and is also slightly arcuate. The last segment is
nearly straight, cylindrical, and both shorter and narrower than the
two preceding. It is, however, slightly wider than the third at the
base, and is obtusely rounded at the apex. All the segments are very
sparsely beset with small setae, and the first three bear longer setae
near their apices. The terminal segment also bears at the base of its
dorsal surface an aréa of small close-set setae. The distal end of this
segment bears a small area of what appear to be sensory papillae, ex-
tremely minute and gathered in a slight emargination in the tip. The
distal two-thirds of the segment have a few scattered pores similar to
those found on the labial palpi (fig. 2 C, ») but somewhat larger.
There are also a few fine canaliculi as described from that organ (can).
The labium (fig. 2 A) is composed of three parts, the submentum,
mentum, and prementum, the last bearing a pair of segmented palpi
and three membranous lobes. The basal piece is the submentum, which
attaches the labium to the head. It is separated from the postgenae
by the submental sutures and is continuous with the gula between the
tentorial pits.
The submentum is expanded anteriorly to clasp the base of the
mentum. The mentum is a transverse sclerite, heavily sclerotized, and
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 109
bearing a pair of large setae on each side. The prementum arises from
the inner or dorsal surface of the mentum. It is much narrower than
the latter and roughly square in outline. Its distal end is expanded
into two pairs of lobes, an inner pair of glossae and an outer pair of
paraglossae. The glossae (gl) lie on either side of the median line,
fused throughout their length except at the tip, which is slightly
notched. They are ordinarily visible between the labial palpi (Jp)
on the ventral aspect. The paraglossae (pgl) are expansions of the
anterolateral corners of the prementum. They are more distinctly
produced than the glossae, but are almost always hidden behind the
first segment of the labial palpi (/p). Both the glossae and the para-
glossae are membranous, unpigmented, and translucent. They have
no vestiture with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the anterior
margin between the glossae and the paraglossae. The prementum bears
on each side at its median lateral margin a large imperfectly differenti-
ated lobe, the palpiger (plg) which bears the labial palpus (/p and fig.
2 B) on its distal end. There is a single stout seta at approximately the
base of each palpiger. The labial palpus is three-segmented with the
first two segments nearly equal in size and the terminal one somewhat
elongated. This palpus differs from the maxillary palpus in being
devoid of setae, except for a very few long hairs. The extreme tip
of the third segment is slightly emarginated and bears a small median
area of what appear to be sensory papillae (fig. 2 C, senp). The sur-
face of the tip is also set with relatively very large pores (p), with
a few of what appear to be minute canaliculi (can) ending at the sur-
face in a small, dark dot.
On the inner or dorsal surface of the labium is a large appendage,
the hypopharynx (fig. 2D). This arises from the region between
the mentum and submentum and the mouth opening, and bears two
slender lobes distally. These lobes extend in a narrow V-shape be-
hind the paraglossae of the labium and are armed along the inner
edge with a comb of long stout setae. This entire organ is very
membranous and translucent, and the distal portion is covered with a
very dense vestiture of short fine hairs. It is so exactly beneath the
labium (that is, dorsal to it) that the tips of the comb-bearing lobes
appear to be the paraglossae of the labium, even in dissections. It
is firmly attached to the ental surface of the labium.
THE TENTORIUM
Each half of the tentorium or internal skeleton of the head is com-
posed of a posterior arm (fig. I F, pfa), an anterior arm (ata), and
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
a dorsal arm (dta). The posterior arm extends along the ventral wall
of the head to the foramen magnum, with the edge of which it is com-
pletely united. It is marked on the exterior of the head by a small
pit or invagination at the cephalic end of the gular sutures. This is
the posterior tentorial pit (ptp). The anterior arm of the tentorium
extends to the anterior dorsal region of the head near the base of the
antennae. The point at which it reaches the head wall is marked on
the exterior by a shallow anterior tentorial pit (atp). This is situated
just mesad of the antennal fossa (af). The dorsal arm of the tentorium
extends dorsad and somewhat caudad to the dorsal wall of the head.
This point is marked on the exterior by a slight unevenness of the
surface, and the body wall itself is much thinner, or at least less
heavily pigmented, at that place. This point (dtp) represents the
dorsal tentorial pit. The two halves of the tentorium meet and fuse
at the midline of the head just caudad of the line of the base of the
mandibles. This union is the cephalic bridge or body of the tentorium
(cp). There has apparently been no study of the muscles which are
attached to the tentoria of Coleoptera, but the normal insect type is
given by Snodgrass (1928), who shows that many of the muscles of
the mouthparts and antennae are attached to specific parts of the
tentorium.
THE CERVIX
The neck region or cervix is largely membranous but contains cer-
tain sclerites which have been interpreted by some writers as parts
of a primitive cervical segment. Three pairs of sclerites are present
in this species. Two of these pairs lie in the membrane at the lateral
posterior corners of the gula. The third pair is more closely united
to the prothorax, and in dissections is most frequently retained on the
lateral cephalic edges of the prosternum.
In the dorsal parts of the membrane near its union with the thorax
are two areas bearing a few short setae. They are not sharply defined
and are apparently unsclerotized.
THE THORAX
The thorax is very obviously divided into two regions, owing to the
distinct separation of the prothorax from the rest (fig. 3 A) and the
close union of the mesothorax and metathorax to the abdomen.
The pronotum (fig. 3 A, pron) occupies the entire dorsal aspect
of the prothorax. Its posterior and lateral margins are inflexed upon
the ventral surface and are separated from the sternum by the sterno-
NO. 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 19
notal sutures (sus). The lateral and caudal margins are occupied
by a fine ridge or thickening (mrn), which, near the anterior lateral
angles, passes onto the ventral aspect and disappears. The area set
off by the marginal ridge is known as the hypomera (hypo) or the
inflexed part of the pronotum. The dorsal surface of the pronotum
is moderately convex, nearly quadrate with the angles broadly rounded,
and very slightly wider than long. The broad median area is smooth
and even on the surface, but it is traversed by numerous fine canaliculi,
which appear to be larger and more definite in arrangement than the
usual irregular canals in sclerotized integuments. Each canal ends at
the surface in a minute puncture which appears to bear an extremely
fine and short point or setula. The sides of the dorsal surface are
beset with moderate setae which are set in large punctures. This area
is continued at the anterior corners onto the lateral and ventral aspects
by the continuation of the marginal ridge.
The hypomera is itself slightly deflexed along the margin of the
coxal cavity, and this deflexed part is set off by a rather definite line
which extends posteriorly for some distance. Just caudad of the
coxal cavity and nearly over the mesothoracic spiracle, this deflexed
part is expanded medially into a membranous lobe (fig. 3 A, prul, C)
which partially closes the cavities behind. Its anterior edge is densely
covered with very fine membranous processes (figs. 3 C,D) of two
types. Single slender and finely pointed processes occupy the greater
part of the area, and shorter fimbriate groups of five to seven points
occur in a band around the margin. These groups and the single
points are connected in series by fine folds of the surface and appear
to be merely expansions of these folds. The posterior parts of the
hypomera bear no setae but have many of the fine canaliculi on the
lateral portions.
The ventral aspect of the prothorax is occupied by the sternum,
the hypomera, the coxal cavities, and the anterior and posterior
foramina, which receive parts of the head and mesothorax respec-
tively. A considerable caudal area is membranous, and one sclerite
(fig. 3 A, pert) lying in this area belongs to the mesothorax. This
is the sclerite that bears the so-called prothoracic spiracle (sp), which
is undoubtedly morphologically a part of the mesothorax.
The prosternum is composed of two sclerites, the basisternum
(fig. 3 A, bs) and the furcasternum (fs), separated by a suture
(stcs), the sternacostal suture. The basisternum is a transverse sclerite
along the ventral or posterior border of the anterior foramen (afor),
extending laterally to the notosternal suture (sms) and forming the
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
anterior border of the coxal cavities. It is heavily sclerotized and
pigmented, and bears a few setae on its mesal part and a group of
five or six minute punctures near the middle of each lateral side.
sil HAUS
NAH vi ti
Miy't
pron
T\ists slcs
mesp
Fic. 3.—Morphology of the thorax of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, dorsal and ventral aspects of thorax, showing general relationship of parts.
B, prothoracic trochantin. C, notal lobe of prothorax. D, detail of processes of
pronotal lobe. E, mesothoracic peritreme and spiracle. F, group of setae from
membrane between prothorax and mesothorax.
The furcasternum is much shorter than the basisternum, less heavily
sclerotized, and without vestiture or sculpture, except for the minute
pores or pits found on most of the prothoracic integuments.
NO: 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 74 |
The remainder of the venter is occupied by the membranes lining
the coxal cavities (fig. 3 A, cvc) and that connecting the prothorax
and the mesothorax (mb). In the lateral parts of this latter membrane
and just caudad of the coxal cavities lies the pair of sclerites, the
peritremes, bearing the spiracles of the mesothorax.
The pleural elements appear to have been so far reduced by the
approximation of the notum and sternum as to have disappeared en-
tirely as separate sclerites. This area normally forms the major ar-
ticulation of the coxa (the anterior or dorsal articulation). In the
present species the trochantin, whose apical end forms the posterior
or ventral articulation, is prolonged around the base and provides
also the dorsal articulation. This may be interpreted as an indica-
tion that the pleural elements have united with the trochantin and
are represented only in that sclerite.
The trochantin of the prothorax (fig. 3 A, tn, B) is a long narrow
sclerite with a lobate projection on the lateral side. This lobe bears
the dorsal articulation of the coxa as described above. The cephalic
part projects under the anterior margin of the coxal cavity. The caudal
part, projecting into the coxal cavity, is more heavily sclerotized and
thicker than the rest. It is elevated into a longitudinal ridge which
bears a few setae and a series of the minute punctures with setulae.
The surface, especially that bordering the ridge, is strigulose. The
posteromedian end articulates with the inner edge of the coxa.
The mesothorax is much shorter than the prothorax or the meta-
thorax and is closely united to the latter (fig. 3 A). It is united to
the prothorax by a membrane (mb) which is of considerable extent
on the ventral aspect, extending to the coxal cavities of the prothorax.
In this membrane lies the peritreme (fig. 3 A, peri, E) bearing the
mesothoracic spiracle (sp). The peritreme is an oblong sclerite,
placed transversely, and nearly two and one-half times as wide as
long. It is thought to be a secondary sclerotization of the interseg-
mental membrane. The spiracle is located in the lateral three-fourths
of the sclerite and is similar in appearance to the first abdominal
spiracle (fig. 9 D). There are a very few scattered setae on the mem-
branous declivity surrounding the sieve processes. At the sides just
ventrad and caudad of the spiracles is an area bearing a few minute
setae in relatively very large punctures (fig. 3 A, x, F). This area
is not differentiated from the remainder of the membrane and is
unsclerotized.
The dorsal aspect of the mesothorax is nearly covered by the pro-
jecting caudal edge of the pronotum (fig. 3 A). Its most conspicuous
sclerite is the central shield-shaped area (fig. 4 C, A) which is gen-
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
erally known as the scutellum. It is formed by the union of the three
normal sclerites of the mesonotum, the prescutum, scutum, and
scutellum.
The posterior triangular portion is the scutellum (figs. 4 C, 3 A,
4 A, scl), which overlaps the metatergum posteriorly and is separated
in front from the prescutum by an obvious transverse suture. Its
surface is rather densely sétigerous, with a narrow impunctate anterior
margin. A rectangular area (sclp) on the ental surface of the posterior
part of the scutellum is the part that is in close contact with the an-
terior edge of the metanotum. The anterior margins of the area are
continued forward as the axillary cords of the wings (axc) which
appear to proceed from the sides of the prescutum.
The part of the shield anterior to the scutellum is the prescutum
(figs. 4 C, 3 A, 4A, psc). It overlaps the scutellum somewhat posteri-
orly, especially at the sides. The prescutum is short and transverse,
bearing the anterior notal wing process (amp), the lateral emargination
(em), and a second process posterior to this. An irregular transverse
line extends between the anterior wing processes dividing the pre-
scutum into two areas. The posterior of these bears numerous setae,
somewhat smaller than those of the scutellum, on its caudal half,
and also a very few exceedingly fine setae at the anterior angles near
the wing processes. The anterior area bears a small group of six
to eight setae on each side of the center on the caudal margin,
and also a median pair of very large setae (fig. 4 C).
The scutum (fig. 4 A, sct) of the mesothorax is completely sepa-
rated by the union of the scutellum and the prescutum along the line
of the suture pss into two parts. It projects laterad from beneath
the shield and forms the posterior notal wing processes. Its exact
outline is obscure as it is more or less united to the other sclerites
entad. The axillary cord (axc) appears to arise from the scutum but
probably merely traverses it from the margin of the scutellum of
which it is the continuation. The ectal surface on each side is ap-
parently transversely traversed by a fine suture (scts) which marks
an ental apodeme.
The sternum of the mesothorax is represented chiefly by a single
large sclerite (s.//) on the median part of the ventral aspect. It is
separated from the anterior margin by a narrow strip, the prepectus
(prp), which extends from the anterior portion of one episternum
along the margin in front of the sternum and onto the other epi-
sternum. The prepectus may not be a distinct sclerite, but it is sepa-
rated from both the sternum and the episternum by a distinct line
or ridge and is somewhat inflexed. It appears to be divided into three
INO pL S| STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 23
parts by the end of the sternopleural suture, and fuses with the epi-
sterna at its extreme anterior ends. It has no vestiture or sculpture.
The mesosternum is prolonged laterally in a narrow piece which
forms part of the anterior margin of the coxal cavity and posteriorly
in a broad median lobe, the mesosternal process (fig. 3 A, mesp).
There are a few scattered very slender setae on the central part, par-
ticularly on its caudal margin, and almost the entire surface is densely
covered with very fine punctures which appear to bear very minute
setulae. On the lateral extensions these punctures are rather sparse,
but the setulae are larger and more definite.
Posteriorly the mesosternum is separated from the metasternum
by a narrow sclerite, the spinisternum (fig. 3 A, ss). This is a secon-
dary sclerite formed from the intersegmental membrane and united to
the mesothorax. It is very narrow medially, expanding somewhat on
the floor of the coxal cavities. It is separated from the mesosternum
by the spinisternal suture (sss) and from the metasternum by the
suture ists. It bears no sculpture or vestiture.
The pleuron of the mesothorax is larger than either the mesonotum
or the mesosternum. It occupies the lateral part of both the dorsal
and ventral aspects and forms the processes that project into the pro-
thorax for articulation. It is composed of the episternum, the epimeron,
and the articulations of the coxa, and bears on its anterodorsal part
the base of the elytra.
The episternum (fig. 3 A, eps. 1) is the largest sclerite of the meso-
thorax. It is separated from the sternum by the sternopleural suture
(sps). Its posterior corner extends to the rim of the coxal cavity and
forms an articulation for the trochantin. Its ental projection fuses
with part of the epimeron to form the pleural coxal process (cap)
On the ventral surface the episternum is completely separated from
the epimeron by the pleural suture (pls), but this suture extends only
to the lateral edge and is not continued on the dorsal aspect. Thus
the episternum and epimeron are united on the dorsal surface, and
this sclerite, the pleuron (/), forms the anterior projections of the
mesothorax.
The episternum is rather sparsely set with setae, which are short at
the prepectal margin and become larger and longer toward the pleural
suture. The lateral and dorsal parts, particularly anteriorly, are finely
strigulose, the lines being considerably more apparent than the normal
very fine markings of sclerotic surfaces. The ventral part is also
sparsely set with the minute lageniform punctures similarly to the
pronotum.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The epimeron (fig. 3 A, epm. IJ) appears as a distinct sclerite on
the ventral surface of the mesothorax but is united to the episternum
on the dorsal aspect to form an undifferentiated pleuron. Posteriorly
it overlaps the end of the metathoracic sternum and episternum, and
forms the lateral wall of the mesothoracic coxal cavity. Its surface
bears a few long sparse setae, similar to the adjacent area of the epi-
sternum, and has also the minute punctures. The dorsal aspect of
the pleuron bears no setae but is strigulose as described above.
From the dorsal side of the anterior projections of the mesothorax
arise the elytra. Discussion of the articulation of these will be left
for the section dealing with the wings.
The trochantin of the mesothorax (figs. 3 A, th, 4B) is smaller
than that of the prothorax but is similar in arrangement and structure.
It is an arcuate sclerite, nearly three times as long as wide, and taper-
ing distally to form a blunt condyle for the coxa (trla). Its proximal
portion forms a condyle that articulates with the projecting corner
of the episternum (mtla). Its ventral or ectal surface is thickened into
a broad ridge, and the proximal ental part is submembranous. A single
long seta is set in a large puncture at the middle of the longitudinal
elevation, and the surface is longitudinally strigulose.
The metathorax is the caudal one of the three thoracic segments
and is larger than either of the others. It is very closely united to the
mesothorax in front and to the abdomen behind. The tergum is in
rather close contact with the tergite of the first abdominal segment,
whereas the sternum is rather loosely joined by membrane to the
sternite of the third abdominal segment.
The tergum of the metathorax (figs. 3 A, 4 F) is divided into five
parts: The prescutum (psc), the two separated scutal areas (sct and
sctt), the scutellum (scl and sclt), and the postnotum (pu). The
prescutum, scutum, and scutellum are fundamental parts of the tergum,
but the postnotum or postscutellum is a secondary sclerite formed
from the intersegmental membrane caudad of the metatergum and
subsequently joined to it (see Snodgrass, 1909).
The central triangular part of the metatergum is the scutellum. It
is separated from the two scutal areas by two internal ridges, the
V-ridges (figs. 5 A, 4 F, vr), and two curved sutures. It is sepa-
rated anteriorly from the prescutum by a membranous area, and pos-
teriorly from the postnotum by a suture (acs) extending between the
bases of the wings. Since the posterior margin of the scutellum is mor-
phologically continuous with the hind margins of the wings, this area
is considered as extending laterad along the suture to the wings, and
it is therefore fused with the posterior part of the scutum on each
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 25
side. The anterior half of the scutellum is very densely invested with
short fine setae, and the posterior half has two large lateral, finely
strigulose areas bearing numerous circular and occasionally anastomos-
ing pores of unknown function.
The scutum of the metathorax is divided into two parts by the ap-
proximation of the prescutum and the scutellum. Medially these are
separated from the scutellum by the suture of the V-ridge, but posteri-
orly they are continuous with the lateral extensions of the scutellum
to the wing bases. From the prescutum and the axillary and subalar
sclerites it is separated by the prescutoscutal suture (figs. 3 A, 4 F,
pss). At the sides the combined scutum and scutellum form the
posterior notal wing process (pup), and just anterior to this process
are two small invaginations and a process that articulates with the
base of the first axillary sclerite (ax.1). The entire surface of the
scutum is densely, finely muricate, the posterior median part being
likewise strigulose with the minute but rigid points born on the sum-
mits of the strigulae. Two small groups of fine setae are present on
each area of the scutum. One is on the median lobe (mls) that over-
laps the suture of the V-ridge; the other is on the lateral margin just
mesad of the articulation of the first axillary sclerite (arp).
The prescutum is normally almost entirely covered by the mesono-
tum, but is readily recognizable in dissections as an irregular band
along the anterior border of the scutal areas (fig. 4 F). It is rather
irregularly and less heavily sclerotized and is broken up into a number
of areas or sclerites. The transverse median part bears on its ectal
surface a broad lobe (pscl) reflected so as to overlie somewhat the
central membranous area between the prescutum and the scutellum.
This lobe is exceedingly smooth and flat, without sculpture or vesti-
ture of any kind. Near the anterior angles of the scutum, the pre-
scutum is broken up into two small sclerites on each side. The inner
one is very small and triangular and overlaps the median portion
ectad. The outer one is also subtriangular, but it is larger and forms
the very blunt anterior notal wing process (anp) which lies under
the distal end of the first axillary sclerite (ax. 1). These two sclerites,
as well as most of the median part, are very minutely muricate, and
the membranous central area has a group of minute setae which is
continuous with that of the scutellum as described above.
The postnotum (figs. 3 A, 4 F, pm) is the short transverse sclerite
extending across the dorsum from one pleuron to the other and sepa-
rated from the scutum and the scutellum by the postnotal suture
(pns). It is connected by a very short membrane to the first ab-
dominal tergite, and at the sides is reflected around the first abdominal
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
prph _mdts
ea S
7
trla
LLZvV
—_—__—_ ew
Fic. 4—Morphology of the thorax of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, ectal and ental aspects of tergum of mesothorax. B, trochantin of meso-
thorax. C, “scutellum” of mesothorax. D, detail of surface of notepimeron of
metathorax. E, metathoracic spiracle. F, ectal and ental aspects of tergum of
metathorax. G, pleurites of metathorax.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER 27
spiracle (sp. 1) to form an articulation with the epimeron (puqa).
The lateral anterior angles are extended along the antecostal suture to
the axillary region. Along the posterior part of the sclerite extends a
suture from the postnotal articulation to the midline, marking the
location of an interior ridge. This is the antecostal suture (acs).
There is no vestiture on the postnotum, but the narrow area caudad
of the antecostal suture is finely muricate. The central area is densely
covered with extremely minute rounded papilliform processes or
excrescences.
The axillary sclerites will be described in the section dealing with the
wings.
The ventral aspect of the metathorax is occupied by a single very
large sclerite, the metasternum (fig. 3 A, s.///). It extends from
the coxal cavities of the mesothorax to those of the metathorax, and
bears no sutures with the exception of a line from the anterolateral
angles around the coxal declivity. This line disappears medially and
is more of the nature of a fold, as it bears no internal expansions or
processes. The metasternum is separated from the mesosternum
(s. IT) by a suture (ists) which disappears for a short distance on the
floor of the coxal cavity. Posteriorly the metasternum bears a small
triangular median emargination bounded by two rounded lobes, the
sternal articulations of the coxae (stca). Laterad of each articulation
is a broad shallow coxal emargination, and a slight expansion of the
sternum overlaps the coxal articulation with the pleuron. The entire
surface behind the line of the postcoxal folds is densely clothed with
long hairlike setae. The floor of the coxal cavity is finely strigulose
and nearly reticulate, and the area between the coxal depressions
and the poststernum is finely muricate. A narrow border of small setae
lines the posterior edge of the coxal depression on the anterior or
inner side of the coxal fold.
The pleuron of the metathorax is divided longitudinally into the
usual two sclerites, the episternum, and the epimeron. The episternum
(figs. 3 A, 4G, eps. IIT) or the dorsal sclerite is very slender and
rather rectangular, and its posterior dorsal angle forms an articula-
tion for the lateral extremity of the metathoracic coxa. This articula-
tion is the pleural coxal articulation (cvla). With the exception of
a narrow band along the cephalic edge, the surface of the episternum
is densely clothed with long setae. Also the entire surface is strigu-
lose, the strigulae forming tiny folds over the base of each of the setae.
The epimeron of the metathorax is larger than the episternum and
is secondarily marked with several longitudinal lines or sutures (fig.
4G). One of these sutures (epms), marked by an internal ridge,
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
separates the epimeron into two parts, the notepimeron (nepm) and
the sternepimeron (sepa). The sternepimeron lies along the epi-
sternum, separated from it by the pleural suture (fils), and is slightly
longer and considerably wider than it. Its posterior part overlaps the
lateral end of the first abdominal tergite and the spiracle of that seg-
ment, as well as the tip of the postnotum of the metathorax and,
anteriorly, the caudal end of the epimeron of the mesothorax. Its
cephalic end is the pleural wing process (pwp) but apparently 1s not
specially modified. Its surface is rather convex and marked with a
distinct impressed line (sepl) which sets off the anterior quarter and a
narrow band along the dorsal edge. The surface is clothed with setae
similarly to the episternum except for a space dorsad and caudad of
the sternepimeral line. The anterior part bears only a few small
scattered setae. The notepimeron (nepm) is united to the sternepim-
eron at its cephalic end, at which point the former is a narrow band.
It expands posteriorly into a flat oval plate, bearing a few small setae
anteriorly and a few minute sensory pores on the sides of the disk,
and its surface is rather strongly strigulose (fig. 4 D).
The metathoracic spiracle (figs. 3 A, sp. JJT, 4 E) lies in the mem-
brane anterior to the epimeron and along the dorsal side of the meso-
thoracic pleuron. It is very pale and membranous, without sculpture
or vestiture, and is not surrounded by a definite sclerite. It is entirely
unlike the spiracles of the mesothorax and abdomen as it has no sieve
apparatus, being composed of two sclerotic lips which fold together
to close the opening. It is longer and much more slender than the
other spiracles and is difficult to differentiate from the surrounding
membrane.
THE ENDOTHORAX
The endoskeleton of the thorax is known collectively as the endo-
thorax. It is composed of invaginations of the tergal, pleural, and
sternal regions of each segment, and these apodemes are termed the
endotergites, the endopleurites, and the endosternites respectively. The
sclerotized tendons and some small invaginations are part of the endo-
skeleton but are not considered here.
The endotergites (fig. 5 A) are found typically only in the meso-
thorax and metathorax. In the prothorax the endotergites are repre-
sented only by a rather indefinite group of processes on the hypomera
in the region of the coxal cavity and the trochantin. These bear a
large muscle disk (fig. 5 A). In the mesothorax the anterior margin
of the prescutum is deflexed to form a transverse ridge—the ante-
costal ridge or prephragma (prph), which bears a pair of large muscle
NOLES STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 29
disks (mdts) at its ends. There is apparently just behind this small
ridge and corresponding with a line or suture on the ectal surface, the
prescutal suture (fig. 4A, pscs), a large transverse phragma ex-
Fic. 5—Endoskeleton of trunk of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, endoskeleton of the dorsum. B, endoskeleton of the venter.
tending between the anterior notal wing processes (fig. 4 A, anp), and
posteriorly at the sides to the prescutoscutellar suture (pss), and
more or less united to the prephragma. On the midline this phragma
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
bears a longitudinal ridge (ppr), and a rounded posterior lobe next
to it on each side (ppl). The ental side of the posterior notal wing
processes (pup) of the scutum bears a small transverse phragma of
unknown homology.
The endotergites of the metathorax are much more extensive than
those of the mesothorax. The most conspicuous are the two V-ridges
(figs. 4 F, 5 A, vr) converging anteriorly near the center of the seg-
ment. These mark the lateral boundaries of the scutellum but are not
marked on the ectal surface by definite sutures. Posteriorly each
V-ridge seems to coalesce with a transverse apodeme, the posterior no-
tal ridge (ponr), which is formed from the posterior edge of the scu-
tum and scutellum and extends from the base of one wing to the base
of the other. Just laterad of the anterior end of the V-ridge is a short
transverse apodeme called the transverse notal ridge (tur). The cen-
tral part of the anterior edge of the prescutum bears a lobate phragma,
the prephragma (prph), which is more or less connected laterally to
the large muscle disk (mdtt). The prescutoscutal suture (sss)
marks the invagination of the anterior notal ridge (annr), which ex-
tends around to the base of the wings, where it approaches a small
apodeme supporting the axillary process (axp). The posterior part
of the postnotum (pn) bears a transverse suture (acs) marking a
long apodeme, the postphragma (pph), which supports the postnotal
articulations (puna) and is expanded into a pair of lobes which project
over the posterior ends of the V-ridges and appear to be more or less
connected with the posterior notal ridge (ponr).
The endopleurites are present in all three of the thoracic seg-
ments. Since the pleuron of the prothorax is greatly reduced and
united with the trochantin, it is this combined sclerite that bears the
pleural apophysis. This is a large crescentic process which projects
under the inflexed hypomera. There is an oval sclerotization on the
ental surface of the peritreme, but this is a structure of the endo-
pleuron of the mesothorax.
The endopleurites of the mesothorax are very small. The pleural
apophysis (fig. 5 B, pla) is formed between the episternum and the
epimeron and projects into the coxal cavity to form the pleural coxal
process (cxp). An apodeme also extends from the pleural apophysis
along the posterior edge of the episternum or pleuron to the region of
the muscle disk of the endotergites and to the base of the elytra.
The endopleurites of the metathorax are relatively much more de-
veloped than those of the mesothorax. The pleural apophysis (fig. 5 A,
pla) is composed of a pleural ridge (plr) formed between the epi-
sternum and the epimeron along the pleural suture, and an ental ex-
NOT LS STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 31
tension, the pleuradema (p/d). The dorsal edge of the sternepimeron
bears the sternepimeral suture (fig. 3 A, seps), which marks the
invagination of the sternepimeral ridge (fig. 5 A, sepr). Apparently
arising from the cephalic end of the episternum is the very large
pleural disk (mdpt) which extends posteriorly, overlapping the base
of the wing.
The endosternites of the prothorax consist of a broad prephragma
(fig. 5 B, prph) and the sternal apophysis (sa). The prephragma
arises from the anterior edge of the basisternum (fig. 3 A, bs) and
forms the ventral border of the anterior foramen (afor). It extends
the width of the basisternum and unites with the sternal apophysis
entad of the sternonotal suture (svs). From each lateral corner of
the furcasternum (fs) arises a sternal apophysis which extends along
the lateral edge of the sclerite to unite with the prephragma and the
pleural apophysis. Near the base of each sternal apophysis is the
large muscle disk (mdsp).
In the mesothorax the sternum bears a transverse ridge on its
posterior margin. This ridge is the furca (fig. 5 B, fu) and has two
anterior projections, the furcal arms (fua). The two muscle disks
(mdss) apparently arise from the furcae also. The spinisternum
(fig. 3 A, ss) also bears a small transverse ridge (fig. 5 B, ssr) with
a median cariniform projection, the spina (sp).
The metathoracic endosternites (fig. 5 B) are more properly termed
the furca than those of the mesothorax. The prominent part is the
median bar (fu) arising from the posterior border of the sternum
and projecting anteriorly in the interior of the thorax. In approxi-
mately the middle of the metathorax it divides into two lateral
branches, the furcal arms (fua), each of which bears a large muscle
disk (mdst). A narrow ridge is formed on the ental surface of the
caudal and lateral margins of the sternum, extending anteriorly to the
region of the pleural coxal process of the mesothorax.
THE APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX
THE WINGS
The elytra are highly modified wings of the mesothorax. They have
a horny texture and considerable rigidity but are not used in flight.
They are held apart at an angle with the body to allow freedom of
motion of the wings, but when at rest are laid along the dorsum of
the mesothorax and metathorax, meeting along the midline. They
serve as covers for the wings, but are so small in this species that
the wings must be folded transversely under them several times.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The elytron is irregularly oval in outline (fig. 6 F), with a straight
mesal edge that fits against a similar edge of the opposite elytron, and
an oblique anteromesal edge that fits against the side of the “ scutel-
lum” of the mesothorax. The two outer angles are broadly rounded.
The greater part of the surface is flat and even, but the sides become
Fic. 6.—Morphology of the wing bases and elytra of
Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, base of hind wing, showing axillary sclerites. B, base of elytron. C, D, E,
details of elytral sculpture. F, right elytron (smaller setae omitted). G, detail
of three types of setae of elytron.
very convex, being deflexed somewhat onto the lateral aspect of the
body.
The entire surface is densely covered with setae (fig. 6G) of rather
uniform size, and bears also a few much longer setae (figs. 6 F, G)
placed in a regular pattern. There are three series of these setae:
One along the lateral margin of the deflexed area, of four or five setae;
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 33
another along the axis of the disk, of three to six setae; and the third
of one to three setae along the scutellar margin. Each seta is set
in a puncture at the center of a small smooth area, so that it is some-
what isolated from the surrounding smaller setae. The dense smaller
setae are of two colors, pale and black. They are arranged in fairly
definite groups, thus giving rise to the black and white markings of
the elytra. Rather frequently interspersed among the setae are several
types of pores or punctures which appear to be glandular.
Certain parts of the surface are sculptured in various ways (fig.
6C,D, E). The point indicated at z in figure 6 F probably forms part
of the articulation of the elytra with the mesonotum and appears to
be very finely scaly (fig. 6 C). This area extends for a short distance
on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the elytron, and the scales
grade off anteriorly into minute points (fig. 6D, E).
The elytron articulates with the mesonotum by means of the two
wing processes (fig. 6 B, anp, pnp). The connecting membrane bears
two irregular, very lightly sclerotized areas, which have been inter-
preted as the first and second axillary sclerites (ar. 1, av. 2). The
axillary cord (arc) proceeds from the margin of the scutellum. As
the actual movement of the elytron is rather slight, the whole articu-
lating mechanism is much less developed than that of the hind wings.
The hind wings (fig. 7 A) are well developed, being nearly as long
as the entire body. The wing is approximately one-third as wide as
long, with a distinct and heavily sclerotized hinge just proximad of
the stigma, and a large separate anal lobe. The venation is greatly re-
duced and not easily homologized. The following scheme is tenta-
tively adopted here.
The most conspicuous vein is the one arising from the articulation
with the first axillary sclerite (fig. 6 A, av. 1) and extending to the
hinge, enclosing a narrow costal area. This vein is the subcosta united
with the radius (fig.7 A, Sc, R). It is apparently double, as shown,
the anterior and the basal parts representing the subcosta, the distal
part being chiefly radius. The costa is anterior to the subcosta but
is rather indefinite. It is represented by an oval area (fig. 7 A, C, and
71D) near the base of the wing and by the anterior basal edge of the
wing. The base of the subcosta articulates with the first axillary
sclerite (fig. 6 A), but the costa is the only part of the wing that could
come in contact with the anterior notal wing process (anp). The sub-
basal area (fig. 7D) appears to be a raised sclerotic plate bearing
numerous setae. It is surrounded by membranous areas and does not
touch the margin of the wing. This is the only part of the wing bear-
ing true setae.
VOL. 94
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
34
ap “A
‘UIDA BYSOD JO 9ze]d pazijOsapOs “Gq
"9SEG JY} JVIU DIVPANS SUIM JO BIYOTIJOIOIU JO [Iey
‘UIDA SMIPes JO aseq JO [leJap ‘d) ‘UsayWed Surpjoy Jo wrerseip ‘gq “SUIM Jo] “VY
"(ARID Snso]j12 Snpygoaty yO Bum sy —Z “S14
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 35
The base of the subcosta overlies the basal part of the radius as
shown in figure 6 A, and a short distance from the base it divides
into two parts. The anterior of these is the subcosta. It is continued
distally nearly to the hinge but is covered by the radius except near
the base where they overlap somewhat. Near the point at which the
subcosta passes under the radius, the posterior edge of the radius has
a small projection which approaches a projection from the cubitus and
is interpreted as the anterior arculus (AntA). Apparently in nearly
all beetles the radius is characterized by the presence of tiny pores
on the dorsal surface near the arculus. These pores (fig. 7 C) appear
immediately distad of the separation of the radius from the subcosta.
They serve as a ready means of identifying this vein. The radius
typically arises from the second axillary sclerite, but here the base is
united with the subcosta and its union with the second axillary is
not apparent, though they do approximate each other. The radius is
extended distally to form the large rectangular stigma (stg) near the
middle of the anterior margin. A disconnected branch of radius (R2)
extends from near the stigma toward the tip of the wing, but it is
rather indefinite and not strongly sclerotized.
Posterior to RK, is another indefinitely sclerotized area which repre-
sents the first branch of the media (fig. 7 A, M1). Its basal part is
entirely lost, and the only other branch that remains of the media is
considered to be united with the distal part of the cubitus (M,+ Cu).
The cubitus is a definite vein extending from the anterior arculus
(fig. 7 A, AntA) diagonally across the wing. Its distal part is united
with M,, and its proximal part with the first anal vein. There is a
distinct angle between these proximal and distal parts, and this point
approaches rather close to the base of ,. The anterior arculus is on
the dorsal edge of the base of the vein, and just distad of this on
the ventral edge is the anal arculus (AnlA). The cubitus is supposed
to arise from the third axillary sclerite, but this connection is not
apparent in this form.
The anal veins are all very indefinite. The first anal is apparently
united with the proximal part of the cubitus (fig. 7 A, Cu+-1A). This
is the vein that forms the anal arculus, which extends toward the
second anal vein. The second, third, and fourth anals are merely
darker streaks in the wing membrane. It is apparently the third (or
the second branch of the second) that marks the anal fan (anf).
The surface of the wing is marked by streaks of darker color,
whereas the hinge (fig. 7 A, hgw) and the stigma (stg) are very dark
and opaque. The entire surface of the wing, both dorsally and ven-
trally, is covered with minute points or setulae which grade off on the
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
posterior and anal areas into tiny rounded or truncated conical pro-
jections. In the costal area also they are replaced by minute rounded
tubercles. Along the posterior margin of the wing these setulae are
frequently twice as long as on the surface, but they are still minute
and are merely processes, not setae.
The wing is articulated to the metanotum by means of the two notal
wing processes (figs. 4 F, 6 A, anp, pnp) and the three axillary scle-
rites (ax. I, ax. 2, av. 3). Figure 6 A shows the relations of these
parts to the wing. The united subcosta and radius (Sc+) is the only
vein that is prominent at the wing base, and it forms a definite articula-
tion with the first axillary sclerite (av. 1). Near the base of the first
and second axillaries is a process of the scutum which evidently forms
a condyle for the base of the second and middle portion of the third
axillaries. This is tentatively designated the scutal wing process
(swp) as it has apparently been unnoticed heretofore.
THE LEGS
The legs are composed of five main divisions, the coxae, trochanters,
femora, tibiae, and tarsi. The first four divisions consist of a single
segment each, the tarsus consisting of five subsegments or tarsomeres,
the last of which bears the pretarsus and its ungues.
The anterior legs (fig. 8F) are short and stout and very densely
covered with setae. The coxa (cv) is rather cylindrical and fusiform.
Its proximal end articulates with a proximal process of the trochantin
by means of a condyle (fig. 8 H, cra) and with the distal end of the
trochantin by a somewhat indefinite projection (tra). The distal end
of the coxa bears the articulation of the trochanter (fig. 8 F, tr)
upon its ventral side. This articulation (fig. 8G) is a large mem-
branous area with several rather indefinite projections which serve as
condyles. The dorsal and anterior surfaces of the coxa are densely
set with slender setae, even more densely than shown in figure 8 F,
but the ventral and posterior surfaces are glabrous and impunctate,
with the following exception. Along the posterior edge of the ventral
face, from the middle to the distal end, is a row of long and slender
setae. The punctures are small and placed in a regular series at first,
but distally are crowded and somewhat irregular. Some of the setae
attain a length equal to half the width of the coxa. The dorsal vesti-
ture is also denser near the distal end of the coxa.
The trochanter of the prothoracic leg (fig. 8 F,G, tr) is rather
elongate and somewhat triangular. It is immovably attached to the
base of the femur, thus forming the articulation of the latter with
INOFR LS STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACKWELDER 37
WH
a Sez
i"
Fic. 8—Morphology of the legs of Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, ventral aspect of tarsus of prothorax. B, ventral aspect of pretarsus of pro-
thorax. C, dorsal aspect of tarsus of prothorax. D, comb of setae and calcar from
anterior side of tibia of prothorax. E, comb of setae and calcar from posterior
side of tibia of prothorax. F, prothoracic leg. G, trochanter of prothoracic leg.
H, articulations of base of coxa of prothoracic leg. I, metathoracic leg. J, claw
of metathoracic leg. K, coxa and trochanter of mesothoracic leg.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the coxa. The trochanter articulates with the coxa by means of two
rather indefinite condyles (a, c, and a, a) which permit a dorsoventral
movement only. The distal two-thirds of the exposed surface bears
numerous moderately long setae, and the area at z (fig. 8G) has a
very few large pores which are quite distinct from the setigerous
punctures.
The femur (fig. 8 F) is the largest segment of the leg. It tapers
somewhat distad and bears a large tubercle on its ventral proximal
margin. The proximal end is obliquely truncated and is immovably
united to the trochanter by a flat surface. The distal end bears a dorso-
ventral groove in which the tibia articulates. This groove is known
as the gonytheca (gony). The proximal dorsal tip forms an acutely
rounded projection which appears to articulate to some extent with
a socket on the outer edge of the coxa. The posterior surface of the
femur is moderately densely set with setae, more sparsely proximad
and dorsad. The setae of the anterior surface are similarly arranged,
being very dense along the tubercle, very sparse on the basal dorsal
part, and entirely lacking from a narrow strip along the ventral face,
which is outlined on both the anterior and posterior faces by an ir-
regular longitudinal series of more closely placed setae. Another series,
of more widely spaced setae, extends along the dorsal face into two
smooth areas. The setae are somewhat longer and more dense near
the dorsal apical margin and show some tendency to serial arrange-
ment across the tip. With transmitted light one may observe the
minute pores which occur in clusters of two to five about the base of
each seta. The surface is extremely finely and irregularly, but linearly
and longitudinally, striate in great part.
The tibia is the fourth segment of the leg. In the prothoracic leg
(fig. 8 F, tb) it is shorter than the femur and about one-half as thick,
expanding slightly toward the apex. It articulates with the femur
by means of a rounded head on its proximal end, which fits into the
groove or gonytheca of the femur (gony) and is held there by a pair
of condyles on each side. This head is somewhat curved toward the
femur, allowing the tibia to lie along the ventral edge of the femur
at rest. The distal end of the tibia is rather rounded and membranous.
It bears the tarsus and the two tibial spurs as well as numerous very
stout heavy setae around the tip. The spurs are known as the calcaria
(cal). They are inserted within the membranous area of the tip, but
are apparently merely slightly modified setae. The larger one is in-
serted on the posterior side of the tarsus and the smaller one on
the anterior side, both of them slightly ventrad of the middle. The tip
is nearly circled by two series of very large and heavy setae, one on
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 39
the anterior and one on the posterior face. Those of the posterior series
(fig. 8 E) are longer and more slender than those of the anterior series
(fig. 8 D), but the latter series contains more setae (about 12) and
extends farther across the tip. The main part of the tibia bears two
types of setae. The most conspicuous is the large thick and blunt
setae similar to those of the terminal series but shorter and some-
what more regular in outline. They occur scattered sparsely on the
posterior aspect, there being perhaps 15 in all, but there are none on
the anterior face. The other type is the smaller tapering setae which
form the normal vestiture. They are sparse on the posterior aspect,
none occurring close to the proximal end, and they approximate the
length of the larger terminal series on the distal portion, being gradu-
ally smaller toward the base. The anterior aspect and the dorsal
portion are clothed with these finer setae similarly to the posterior
face, but the ventral aspect of the tibia is very much more densely
clothed. The base of nearly all of these setae is surrounded by a group
of two to four pores as on the femur, and the anterior face is sup-
plied with additional scattered pores. The surface of the tibia is very
minutely transversely strigulose in contrast to the femur, which is
longitudinally striate.
The tarsus of the prothoracic leg (fig. 8 F, tar) is rather loosely
united to the tibia. The latter bears a rather large terminal membranous
area into which the basal segment of the tarsus, the so-called metatarsus,
is inserted. There are two rather indefinite condyles on the tarsus,
one anterior and one posterior, but no definite corresponding condyles
have been observed on the tibia. The tarsus consists of five tarsomeres
or tarsites, of which the first four are greatly expanded into trans-
verse plates (fig. 8 A, C). The first and second are approximately the
same size, the next two decreasing successively in width and length.
On the dorsal aspect each of these four tarsomeres is broadly emargi-
nate anteriorly, whereas the anterior margin of the ventral side is
expanded in a broad curve forming a large flat plate. The space be-
tween the dorsal emargination and the ventral plate is membranous
and receives the base of the next segment (fig. 8 C). The fifth tarso-
mere is elongate, nearly three times as long as wide, and is inserted
upon the dorsal side of the preceding tarsomere similarly to the others.
It is expanded rather strongly and regularly toward the apex and
is rather cylindrical in form. On its distal end the fifth tarsomere bears
a pair of claws (fig. 8 B, uw) and an expanded membranous lobe carry-
ing a small ventral plate, the unguitractor plate (utr). The claws (fig.
8 J) are slightly compressed dorsoventrally, rather strongly curved
and tapering, and they articulate with the rounded end of the dorsal
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
surface of the last tarsomere. From the proximal end of the ungui-
tractor plate arises the tendon of the retractor muscle of the claws
(xt). The unguitractor plate is rather quadrate, tapering proximally
into the tendon, and is partly inserted into the end of the last tarsomere.
Its distal end is somewhat indefinitely produced into an unsclerotized
area bearing two large setae. This is the empodium.
The dorsal aspect of each tarsomere (fig. 8 C) bears a few scattered
moderately long but fine setae, and the ventral side of the fifth seg-
ment is similarly clothed. The ventral aspect of each of the first four
tarsomeres (fig. 8 A) is very densely set with long fine hairs, which are
absent from the basal portion of each tarsomere. These four tarso-
meres are thus united into a single hairy pad. The two setae on the
empodium have been called parempodia (Hayes and Kearns, 1934)
and are stated to arise from conspicuous trichophores on the empo-
dium. They are, however, perfectly normal setae, and it is doubtful
whether they have any such significance as is implied to them. Their
insertion is very inconspicuous as is usual on such lightly sclerotized
areas.
The mesothoracic legs are longer than the prothoracic legs but not
quite as long as the metathoracic ones. As they are similar to the
others in structure and general arrangement, they are treated briefly
and not figured completely.
The coxa of the mesothoracic leg (fig. 8K) is shorter and ovate.
It is strongly convex and somewhat excavated on the ventral aspect to
receive the base of the femur at rest. The proximal end is slightly
produced on the outer side to form the coxal condyle (cra), which
articulates with the pleural coxal process. The trochantinal articulation
is situated near the center of the proximal end and is retracted to form
a concavity that receives the end of the trochantin. The distal end of
the coxa is deeply grooved to receive the trochanter. The anterior lip
of the groove forms a rounded condyle that articulates in a small
socket on the trochanter. The ventral side of the latter is prolonged
proximad into the coxa, forming a large muscle attachment. The an-
terior aspect of the coxa is somewhat more densely clothed than the
prothoracic coxa, but the vestiture is practically restricted to the inner
or mesal half, only a very few scattered setae occurring on the con-
cavity laterad of the line y. The distal end of the posterior aspect also
bears a few setae similar to the anterior side. At the tip of the inner
face the setae form a long dense brush, and the punctures are so
close as to merge with one another.
The trochanter is moderately densely set with long setae on the
ventral and anterior sides. Each of the punctures has one or more
NO: 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 41
relatively large pores close to it. The posterior face is more sparsely
punctured than the anterior.
The femur of the mesothoracic leg is slightly longer and consider-
ably thicker than that of the prothorax. The anterior aspect bears
numerous moderately long setae which are much sparser at the base
and much shorter along the dorsal edge. The posterior face is glabrous
but is extremely minutely longitudinally striate. The ventral part of
the gonytheca bears a few scattered short setae.
The tibia of the mesothoracic leg is very similar in form to that
of the prothoracic leg. It is nearly one-half again as long and -ex-
ceedingly roughly sculptured. The terminal combs of setae are very
similar, and the other vestiture differs chiefly in being longer and more
dense. The large blunt setae are longer and more irregular in shape
and much more abundant. The calcaria are similar to those of the
metathoracic leg (fig. 81).
The tarsus is almost exactly similar to that of the metathorax
(fig. 81). It is very slightly shorter and bears more of the large
terminal dorsal setae on each tarsomere.
The metathoracic legs (fig. 81) are longer and slightly stouter
than the other legs, but the sculpture and vestiture are not as evident
as on either of the others. The coxa (c#) is short and very transverse,
being rather globular medially with a narrow lateral extension that
bears the pleural articulation (cxa), which is rather indefinitely as-
sociated with the tip of the episternum. The median proximal part
forms the articulation with the metasternum. The median distal part
articulates with the trochanter (tr) by two sets of condyles, one an-
terior and one posterior. The anterior aspect is sparsely clothed with
moderately fine setae which become denser and larger toward the apex.
There is a slight concavity extending diagonally across the coxa from
the median anterior angle and this irregular band is impunctate. The
posterior aspect is glabrous except for the median and apical areas
which are clothed similarly to and continuously with the anterior parts.
The caudal or ventral edge of the transverse lateral part is slightly
concave and bears an irregular row of small setae.
The trochanter (fig. 8 I, tr) is rather oval in form with its proximal
ventral part extended into the interior of the coxa for muscle attach-
ment. It is immovably attached to the posterior side of the proximal
end of the femur as in the other legs. Its anterior surface is moder-
ately closely set with small setae, among which are a few of the tiny
pores. The posterior aspect is glabrous except for a few setae which
are continued around from the anterior side. The femur of the meta-
thoracic leg (fm) is tapered to a blunt point proximally and truncated
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
distally. The gonytheca is rather broad and extends half way down
the ventral side as a distinct groove. This groove bears an irregular
row of short setae. The anterior surface is clothed with moderately
long setae, rather more sparse at the base and longer around the apex.
These are also more densely placed ventrad along the edge of the
ventral groove. The posterior surface (fig. 81) bears a few small
setae along the border of the ventral groove, and near the apex a few
which are continued around from the anterior side. There is also a
series of longer close-set setae along the distal truncated margin,
which is continued onto the dorsal margin also. This posterior surface
is also very minutely longitudinally striate.
The tibia (fig. 81, tb) is rather slender, cylindrical, and somewhat
regularly expanded distad. Its apex bears a complete circle of large
setae very similar to those on the prothoracic tibia (figs. 8D, E) but
the calcaria are much larger and more conspicuous. The anterior vesti-
ture is rather dense and the setae long. It is much denser toward
the apex and the dorsum. The large thick setae are scattered irregu-
larly over the surface, there being perhaps 10 or 12 present. The
posterior surface (fig. 81) is more sparsely clothed and lacks entirely
the larger setae except in the apical series. There is a dorsal series of
four or five of the larger setae. The calcaria are unequal in length,
the posterior being much the longer, and nearly as long as the first
tarsomere. Their surface has an irregular scaly appearance.
The tarsus of the metathoracic leg (fig. 81, tar) is nearly as long
as the tibia, five-segmented like the others, and very nearly cylindrical.
The first tarsomere is elongate, nearly as long as the next three to-
gether, the latter decreasing in length slightly among themselves
distally. The fifth tarsomere is somewhat shorter than the first and
bears two claws and the empodium, which are very similar to those
of the prothoracic leg (fig. 8B). Each of the first four tarsomeres
is a little more extended ventrad than dorsad and therefore is in-
serted apparently a trifle more on the dorsal aspect. They are rather
densely clothed with small setae except for the base of the distal four,
and the surface of the first is roughly sculptured. The apex of each
tarsomere, particularly ventrally, bears a number of very long setae
which often reach to the apex of the succeeding tarsomere. The last
one is more sparsely clothed with the longer setae and bears the two
long setae on the empodial end of the unguitractor plate.
THE ABDOMEN
The abdomen (fig. 9 A) or third region of the body is composed
of a series of 10 segments, of which the last two form the genitalia.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 43
Each of the first eight segments bears a pair of spiracles in the tergum,
and each one except the eighth has one or two paratergites on each side
between the tergite and the sternite.
The first segment is more closely united to the thorax than to the
abdomen (fig. 3 A, tt. 1). The sternite of this segment is not present,
the tergite (fig. 9 A, tt. 7), one paratergite on each side (tt. r), and
the large spiracles (sp. 1) composing the tergum. The tergite is wider
than any of the other tergites and is expanded laterally to nearly twice
the length at the middle. Anteriorly it is closely united to the post-
notum of the metathorax and posteriorly is rather widely separated
from the tergite of the second segment. The surface is not marked by
any sutures and is rather lightly sclerotized. A narrow strip along
the lateral margin (y, y) is somewhat elevated and rather densely
clothed with setae. This area is wider posteriorly, and the setae are
long in front but becoming much longer posteriorly. The punctures
are separated by two to four times their own width and are inter-
spersed with tiny circular nonsetigerous punctures. The remainder
of the surface except near the midline is sparsely set with very small
setae in small punctures, with scattered nonsetigerous punctures also.
The surface is finely strigulate except at the middle, where the
posterior area is very densely and finely, but strongly, muricate. This
murication is continued onto the membrane behind the tergite and
expands somewhat laterally. On the ental surface of the tergite the
strigulae are serrate on the posterior edge over nearly the entire
surface.
The paratergites (fig. 9 A, ptt. 7) of the first abdominal segment
consist of a single broad plate on each side of the tergite. They are
about one-half as long as the lateral margin of the tergite and are
nearly quadrate. Anteriorly each is deeply emarginate to receive the
end of the spiracle (sp. 1). The paratergites are clothed similarly to
the lateral parts of the tergite except that the setae are a little shorter
and are densest in front. The posterior margin is unclothed but bears
the scattered small punctures similarly to the rest.
The spiracle of the first abdominal segment (fig. 9 A, sp. z, D) is
the largest spiracle on the body. It is about twice as long as wide and
occupies the anterior half of the lateral margin of the first tergite.
It is formed of an oval plate with a large irregularly oval aperture,
which is almost completely closed by two series of narrow branching
lobes along the sides, which project in one plane over the aperture and,
by means of their very dense covering of minute hairlike projections,
form a sieve plate over the whole aperture. These microscopic points
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
zi WE WARES
ae.
o
Ghew
PSS ere
\pts ts 5
PLAS) SSTTo Es rs 5
oa
Fic. 9.—Morphology of the abdomen and genitalia of
Creophilus villosus (Grav.).
A, dorsal and ventral aspects of abdomen of male. B, dorsal aspect of female
genitalia. C, lateral aspect of female genitalia. D, spiracle of first abdominal seg-
ment. E, paratergites from left side of third abdominal segment. F, sculpture of
inner side of median orifice of male genitalia. G, lateral aspect of male genitalia.
H, mosaic pattern of intersegmental membranes.
INOS 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 45
are placed in tiny circular groups, and these are continued out onto
the surface of the plate giving it a striated and spotted appearance.
The second abdominal segment is composed of a small tergite and °
one small paratergite on each side extending around onto the ventral
aspect. The spiracles are more or less united to the tergite.
The tergite of the second segment (fig. 9 A, tt. 2) is about equal in
width to the succeeding segments but is shorter than any. The seg-
ments from two to eight, in fact, increase regularly in length. The
shape is somewhat fusiform, and the anterolateral angle is produced
to enclose the spiracle. The surface is longitudinally marked by a
strong suture parallel to the anterior margin, and the vestiture con-
sists of a small group of long setae at the posterolateral angles and a
very few scattered setae along the posterior margin. The surface is
very finely transversely strigulose throughout and is rather densely
beset with relatively large lageniform pores.
The second segment has one paratergite (fig. 9 A, ptt. 2) on each
side of the tergite. They are rather wider than long, tapering toward
each end and are curved around onto the dorsal aspect. No vestiture
or sutures have been observed, but the surface is sculptured similarly
to the tergite.
The sternum of the second segment is entirely membranous and
unrecognizable.
The anterolateral corners of the second tergite are slightly produced
to embrace a small circular sclerite bearing the spiracle of the second
segment. This sclerite is the second abdominal peritreme (fig. 3 A,
peri). The spiracle is approximately one-fourth as large linearly as
the first abdominal spiracle but is slightly larger than the following
ones. The spiracle is very similar in structure to the first abdominal
one, having the processes covered with minute hairs that form the sieve
plates.
The membrane separating the tergites of the second and the third
abdominal segments bears a minute but very definite pattern of more
heavily sclerotized or pigmented areas which are arranged on longi-
tudinal irregularly anastomosing strips separated by clear membranes
(fig. 9H). This type of membrane is found between the tergites of
the second to seventh segments and between the sternites of the third
to seventh segments. It fades off laterally to normal membrane in
the region of the paratergites.
The tergites of the segments three to seven (fig. 9 A), are all nearly
rectangular and are marked by a sinuous transverse fold or suture
(ts) along the anterior margin. Each bears a spiracle near each antero-
lateral angle and is bordered on each side by a pair of paratergites.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The narrow strip between the fold and the anterior margin bears a
very few long, well-separated setae on the caudal margin, except on
the seventh segment, where these setae are about twice as numerous.
The main part of the tergite has a rather conspicuous vestiture of
long setae. These are set in punctures not noticeably larger than the
base of the setae, and separated from each other on the median area by
from three to five times their own width, but near the sides by slightly
less. At the sides of the seventh segment this vestiture is even slightly
denser. Anteriorly on each segment the setae become more sparse and
leave a narrow irregular impunctate strip just posterior to the fold
or suture. Along the posterior margin the setae are arranged in a
single series close to the edge. They are close-set, with the punctures
anastomosing, and thus form a kind of marginal fringe. These setae
are nearly twice as long as the discal ones. This occurs only on the
third to sixth segments. The surface of all these tergites is minutely
transversely strigulose, and the setae are interspersed with numerous
tiny lageniform pores.
The eighth tergite is the last exposed tergite and is broadly tapered
and rounded behind. The sculpture and vestiture are similar to the
preceding segments, except that the discal setae are less conspicuous,
separated by three to five times the width of their punctures, and not
arranged in a definite posterior marginal series.
The sternites of the third to seventh abdominal segments (fig. 9 A)
are very similar in structure, vestiture, and sculpture, but differ slightly
among themselves in form. They decrease in width slightly from the
fifth posteriorly, while increasing in length from the third to the
seventh. They extend around the lateral aspect onto the dorsum and
are marked with an anterior marginal fold or suture (sts) similarly
to the tergites. This suture is somewhat arcuate and disappears near
the side of the ventral aspect. The third sternite (s. 3) is narrowed
in the middle so that it is about one-half as long at that point as at
the sides. The eighth sternite (s.8) is narrowed and rounded
posteriorly similarly to the tergite in the female, but in the male
is broadly and shallowly emarginate at the middle. Each of these
six sternites is clothed very similarly to the tergites. The setae are
long and slender, the punctures small and placed at three to five times
their own width apart, a little more numerous at the sides of the venter,
and arranged in a single closely spaced series along the posterior mar-
gin. This series is present on all the sternites from the third to the
eighth. The strip anterior to the suture is sparsely clothed, and a
narrow line posterior to it is smooth. The longitudinal strigulations
are much finer than on the tergites, being very indistinct except on the
NO? 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 47
strip anterior to the sternal suture. The lageniform pores are very
abundant, especially on the posterolateral portions of the ventral as-
pect of each sternite.
The paratergites (fig. 9 A, ptt, E) are narrow longitudinal sclerites
on the dorsal aspect between the tergites and the up-turned edges of
the sternites. There is one on each side of the first abdominal tergite,
one on each side of the second tergite, and two on each side of the
segments from the third to the seventh. The eighth segment alone has
no paratergites. The first two segments have already been described.
The paratergites of the third to the seventh segments are very similar
in form and arrangement throughout. The median one is slightly
expanded and truncated anteriorly and more or less tapering caudally.
The outer one is rather larger posteriorly but rounded, and tapers
somewhat anteriorly. On the seventh segment the inner paratergite is
much shorter, being only half the usual length and more sharply taper-
ing. All the others are equal in length to the rest of the segment. The
inner paratergite of each segment bears a raised line or fold (pts)
near the anterior end in such a position as to appear to be a continua-
tion of the tergal suture (ts).
The endoskeleton of the abdomen consists chiefly of narrow apophy-
ses along the margins of the segments. These are sometimes known as
plicae, and MacGillivray has proposed a system of naming them.
Each of the dorsal segments from the second to the ninth has a
narrow phragma near the anterior margin which extends along the
sides to the posterior angles except on the second, eighth, and ninth
segments (fig. 5A). These phragmata are marked externally by
sutures (fig. 9 A) except on the second, eighth, and ninth segments,
in which the phragmata are at the anterior edge of the segment. Each
spiracle, except those on the eighth segment, has a small roughly
circular apophysis on its ental surface. On the fifth and sixth segments
there is a very small transverse apophysis just in front of the margin.
These are apparently not marked on the exterior.
The tergal or dorsal member of each pair of paratergites has a
narrow apophysis along the anterior end and the median edge. This
is found only on the third to seventh segments.
The ventral segments from the third to the eighth each have an
anterior apophysis similar to the dorsum. A transverse posterior
apophysis is present on the third to sixth sternites.
THE GENITALIA
The abdominal segments posterior to the eighth form the genitalia.
Owing to special modifications, these are very different in the two
4
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
sexes. The genitalia of the female (fig. 9 B,C) are comparatively
slight modifications of the ninth and tenth segments. The tergite of
the ninth segment (ft. 9) is the sclerite termed the proctiger by Tanner
(1927). The anus (am) is borne not at the end of this sclerite but
on another lobe beneath this, the dorsal surface of which represents
the tenth tergite. The homology of the pair of elongate lobes, called
paraprocts by Tanner, which lie along the sides of the true “ proctiger ”’
or tenth segment, are not known. They most likely are parts of the
ninth tergum which have become separated from the tergite. The
sternum of the ninth segment is represented in the two rectangular
sclerites (vif) meeting along the midline and called the valvifers by
Tanner. These bear a pair of two-segmented appendages composed
of a basal coxite (cvt) and a stylus (sty). This interpretation differs
somewhat from that of Tanner, as he considered the valvifers to be
the basal segment of the appendages of the ninth segment. The open-
ing of the vulva (vul) is behind (entad) and between the apices of
the sternal plates. The distal portions of the ninth tergite and the
lateral lobes, the valvifers, the coxites, and the styli are clothed with
rather long but pale setae. The surface of the membrane about the
vulva is finely muricate with rather blunt pustules.
The genitalia of the male (fig. 9G) are much more highly special-
ized or modified than those of the female in this species. The several
sclerites caudad of the eighth segment of the abdomen but not ac-
tually forming part of the aedeagus have not heretofore been con-
sidered as part of the male genitalia. Since they correspond rather
closely to the parts of the ninth segment in the female, they are here
included with the genitalia of the male.
The ninth segment appears to be present as four distinct parts. The
median dorsal surface (fig. 9 A, tt. 9) is almost entirely unsclerotized
but bears numerous setae. This area is assumed to represent the ninth
tergite. On each side is an elongate lobe (vl), heavily sclerotized and
densely clothed with setae, which is interpreted as the appendage of
the ninth segment, the valvula. The sternum is occupied by a sagit-
tate sclerite (s. 0) whichis undoubtedly the ninth sternite. It is densely
clothed with setae similarly to the valvulae and the eighth sternite.
The male genital tube consists of a strong median lobe and a pair of
united lateral lobes. The median lobe (fig. 9 G, ml) has a large bulbous
base and bears the median orifice (mo) at its distal end. On the
ventral side at the junction of the bulbous part and the distal tube
is the small median foramen (mf) through which passes the ejacu-
latory duct (c7). This duct opens to the exterior through the tip of
the flagellum (f/), which is somewhat coiled and apparently double
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 49
and projects somewhat from the median orifice (mo). The internal
sac (is) is rather large and nearly encloses the flagellum. Its ventral
surface is rather coarsely muricate, whereas the dorsal surface is
densely set with tiny spines or pointed processes. The internal sur-
face just below the flagellum at the point z is sculptured into minute
scalelike protuberances (fig. 9 F), while just dorsal to the flagellum
is a small lobe projecting from the median orifice and very densely
clothed with long but fine hairs or setae. The two lateral lobes are
united on the ventral aspect except at the tip. They are very nearly as
long as the median lobe and very slender, with a small group of long
setae on the dorsal side at the tip.
The outer surface of the aedeagus bears no sculpture or vesti-
ture, except for the frequent very minute pores which traverse the
integument.
CoMPARATIVE MorPHOLOGY OF THE FAMILY
The following section is intended to give a brief review of the
variation within the family of certain of the more important charac-
ters as they are found in the series of species studied. There are very
probably many further modifications to be found in other species, but
the present study will serve to show the chief types and the general
trend of variation.
THE HEAD
The head capsule shows a great many modifications in structure as
well as a wide variety of form and sculpture. The proportions of
length to breadth are found in all stages from 2:1 to 1:2 (figs. 10, I1).
The shape may, vary considerably within a single genus or even a
single species, or it may be fairly constant in a larger group.
The dorsal surface of the head, or epicranium, is generally not di-
vided by sutures as in more generalized insects. Of the species studied,
only Tachyporus (fig. 10C), Tachinus, and Erchomus (all in the
tribe Tachyporini) show any trace of the anterior part of the coronal
suture. A few species have a very short part of the suture visible
at the posterior margin of the epicranium. These include Pseudopsis,
Paederus, Lathrotropis, Lithocharis, Trachysectus, Pinophilus, Xan-
tholinus, Staphylinus, Philonthus, Cafius, Glenus, Acylophorus (fig.
11 G), Quedius, Bolitobius (fig. 11 F), and Xenodusa.
The frontal sutures are complete between the anterior tentorial pits
in all the Tachyporinae studied except Hypocyptus (fig. 10 D) as well
as the Habrocerinae and Oxyporinae. They were also found in this
condition in certain Oxytelini and Piestini. The following are noted
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 9Q4
in this group: Trigonurus (fig. 10 A), Bledius, Aploderus, Oxyporus
(fig. 11 D), Habrocerus, Tachyporus (fig. 10 C), Tachinus, Ercho-
mus, and Bolitobius (fig. 11 F). However, in none of these species
Fic. 10.—Intrafamily variation in the form and structure of
the dorsal aspect of the head (continued on fig. 11).
A, Trigonurus crotchi Lec. B, Micropeplus punctatus Lec. C, Tachyporus
jocosus Say. D, Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). E, Leptochirus mexicanus
Er. F, Aleochara lata Grav. G, Platystethus americanus Er. H, Stenus sculp-
tilis Csy. I, Proteinus limbatus Makl. J, Pelecomalium testaceum (Mann.). K,
Xenodusa sharpi Wasm. L, Lorinota cingulata (Lec.).
is there any evidence of the presence, as a sclerite, of the frons.
This sclerite is normally bounded laterally and posteriorly by the
frontal sutures and anteriorly by the frontoclypeal or epistomal su-
NO: 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 5!
ture, or, if this suture is absent, approximately by a line drawn be-
tween the anterior tentorial pits. Since in these forms the frontal
sutures unite to form a nearly straight line, it is obvious that the true
Fic. 11—Intrafamily variation in the form and structure of the
dorsal aspect of the head (continued from fig. 10).
A, Tanyrhinus singularis Mann. B, Hesperobium pallipes (Grav.). C,
Philonthus aeneus (Rossi). D, Oxryporus lateralis Grav. E, Metoponcus varians
Shp. F, Bolitobius cinctus (Grav.). G, Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse. H,
Osorius mundus Shp.
frons is undifferentiated from the other parts. The area anterior to
the tentorial pits is therefore the postclypeus. A portion of the hy-
postomal suture or epicranial arm is sometimes present, extending
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
from the tentorial pit toward the eye, as is Tanyrhinus (fig. 11 A)
and Philonthus (fig. 11 C). A definite postclypeal area is present in
Tanyrhinus (fig. 11 A), Leptochirus (fig. 10 E), Osorius (fig. 11 1),
Hypocyptus (fig. 10 D), Lorinota (fig. 10 L), ete.
The posterior part of the epicranium is frequently marked by a
transverse suture which is believed to be the occipital suture. It is
generally rather short and disappears on the lateral aspect, but it’may
extend onto the ventral surface, as in Oxyporus (fig. 12D) and
Philonthus (fig. 12J). In Aploderus (fig. 12 E) it even unites with
the gular sutures below. The following show this suture in some
form: Platystethus (fig. 10 G), Aploderus (fig. 12 E), Gastrolobium,
Hesperobium (fig. 11 B), Paederillus, Paederus, Lathrotropis, Stilicus,
Trachysectus, Orus, Astenus, Xantholinus, Staphylinus, Ocypus,
Philonthus (fig. 11 C), Cafius, Glenus, Acylophorus (fig. 11 G),
Quedius, Oxyporus (fig. 11 D), Bolitobius, Liparocephalus, X enodusa
(fig. 10 K), Aleochara (fig. 10 F), and Baryodma. It should be noted
that Paederillus littorarius is the species having the suture, whereas
P. pugetensis apparently does not. Of the major subfamilies, only
Omaliinae and Steninae are not represented in this list.
The head is frequently suddenly constricted behind at the point
to which it may be inserted into the prothorax. This point is fre-
quently but not always at about the region of the occipital suture.
Extreme examples of constriction are Metoponcus (fig. 11 E) and
Lorinota (fig. 10 L).
The position of the antennal fossa varies considerably and has been
used extensively in classification schemes. Since the anterior arm of
the tentorium is invariably closely associated with the antennal fossa,
and the tentorial pits mark the posterior boundary of the frons or
frontal region, it follows that the antennae are never inserted “ under
the margin of the front” or “at front of front ” or “ upon the front,”
but can only be situated at some point along the anterior margin of the
vertex. In the cases in which the postclypeus is completely lacking,
the antennae will be inserted along the anterior margin of the head.
In those cases in which the postclypeus is present but does not reach
the eyes, the antennae will be inserted at the lateral corners of the
vertex, usually near the eyes. In those cases in which the postclypeus
is large and attains the eyes, the antennae will be inserted into the
upper surface of the epicranium, between the eyes. In the first group
are to be found all the Paederinae and Staphylininae, including Hes-
perobium (fig. 11 B), Metoponcus (fig. 11 E), Philonthus (fig. 11 C),
and Acylophorus (fig. 11 G). In the second group are all the Micro-
peplinae, Omaliinae, Oxytelinae, Habrocerinae, and Tachyporinae, in-
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 53
Fic. 12—Intrafamily variation in the form and structure of
the ventral aspect of the head.
A, Tanyrhinus singularis Mann. B, Astenus discopunctatus (Say). C, Ewmalus
nigrella (Lec.). D, Oxyporus lateralis Grav. E, Aploderus linearis Lec. F,
Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). G, Stenus sculptilis Csy. H, Lathrimaeum
pictum Fvl. I, Metoponcus varians Shp. J, Philonthus alumnus Er.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
cluding Micropeplus (fig. 10 B), Pelecomalium (fig. 10 J), Tanyrhinus
(fig. 11 A), Proteimus (fig. 101), Leptochirus (fig. 10 FE), Platy-
stethus (fig. 10 G), Osorius (fig. 11 H), Oxyporus (fig. 11 D), Hy-
pocyptus (fig. 10D), Tachyporus (fig. 10 C), and Bolitobius (fig.
11 F). In the third group are all the Steninae and Aleocharinae, in-
cluding Stenus (fig. 10H), Xenodusa (fig. 10K), Lorinota (fig.
10 L), and Aleochara (fig. 10 F). It should be noted that Acylophorus
shows a tendency toward the second group, whereas Hypocyptus seems
to approach the third group.
The compound eyes are normally situated at the sides of the head
but frequently slightly more on the dorsal aspect than on the ventral.
They vary greatly in size, as in Stenus (fig. 10H) and Leptochirus
(fig. 10 E). They are so far as observed always complete and undivided
and never more than slightly emarginate at any point. The facets
vary considerably in relative size and in convexity, and may be inter-
spersed with fine hairs, as in Liparocephalus.
The opening from the eye into the interior of the head is the
ocular foramen. It is generally much smaller than the eye itself be-
cause of the development of the oculata. The ocular foramina are
indicated in figure 12 F by two small dotted circles near the eyes.
Ocelli are present in one subfamily—the Omaliinae. They appear to
be entirely characteristic of this group, being found only here and
in all the members except one genus which is doubtfully retained.
This genus, Vellica, has not been available for study. The ocelli are
situated on the vertex, one on each side, between or behind the
posterior parts of the compound eyes. In dried specimens they usually
appear as pale convex protuberances, but in slide preparations are
visible only as lighter spots in the wall of the vertex where the sclero-
tization is less thick or the pigment less evident. The ocelli are indi-
cated in the drawings by solid lines and must not be confused with
the ends of the dorsal arms of the tentorium, indicated by dotted lines.
Tanyrhinus (fig. 11 A) and Pelecomalium (fig. 10 J) illustrate these
organs.
The anterior tentorial pits as already stated mark the position of the
epicranial arms or frontal sutures. Since the frons is apparently al-
ways missing in this family, a line between the anterior tentorial
pits may be taken as the line of fusion of the postclypeus and vertex.
The tentorial pits are always situated near the antennal fossae, usually
at their mesal or anterior corners. They may be situated at some point
on the surface of the epicranium before or between the eyes. They
are shown in the figures as black spots but are seldom, if ever, visible
from the exterior in dry specimens. Their actual location is to be
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 55
determined only by following the anterior tentorial arms to their
anterior extremity.
The ends of the dorsal arms of the tentorium are likewise invisible
from the exterior in unprepared specimens. By following the dorsal
arms the point of insertion is determined. This point is indicated in
the figures by a tiny circle of dots, and it is found on the vertex gen-
erally between the eyes, one on each side of the center. In many species
the dorsal arms apparently do not reach the vertex. These include
Acylophorus (fig. 11G), Oxyporus (fig. 11D), Hypocyptus (fig.
10 D), Tachyporus (fig. 10 C), Bolitobius (fig. 11 F), Xenodusa (fig.
10 K), Lorinota (fig. 10 L), etc.
The ventral aspect of the head, similarly to the dorsal, is consider-
ably modified by the obliteration of sutures and the consequent fusion
of primitive elements. The vertex extends around behind the eyes
and is continuous with the genae, if present, and sometimes with the
median gular area and the postgenal area.
In the forms already listed as possessing an occipital suture, the
vertex is separated by it from the occiput and to a greater or less
extent from the postgenae, which are continuous with the occiput.
Where no occipital suture is present the vertex, occiput, and post-
genae are all united to form the epicranium. The postoccipital sutures
are said to be the most constant of all the head sutures. However,
this suture is not evident on any of these species (except possibly
Philonthus, fig. 12 J) until it reaches the ventral side of the head and
becomes the gular sutures.
The gular sutures are formed by the relative anterior migration of
the posterior tentorial pits and normally extend from the foramen
magnum to the base of the labium, separating the ventral aspect into
three parts. Enclosed between these sutures is a sclerite known as the
gula. Stickney states that it is always complete in the Staphylinidae,
but even under the present interpretation the additional material proves
the contrary to be the case. The gula may be considered to be com-
plete when it extends from the foramen magnum to the tentorial
pits, where it unites with the submentum.
The gula has been found to be incomplete in 13 of the species used
in this study. Three types of conditions are found among these 13.
In some the gula is separated from the pits by the meeting of the gular
sutures on the midline, as in Leptochirus, Bledius, Osorius, Gastro-
lobium, Stilicus, Astenus (fig. 12 B), Xantholinus, Staphylinus, and
Cafius. Some have the gular sutures incomplete posteriorly, such as
Paederillus, Lathrotropis, and Trachysectus. One species, Metoponcus
(fig. 121), shows no sign of the gular sutures at all; the posterior
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
tentorial pits, however, are located in this species near the base of the
labium and indicate a possible relationship with the supposedly closely
related Xantholinus, in which the sutures are confluent on the midline.
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD
The intrafamily variation in the antennae is considerable, but these
variations are mostly rather superficial and are not very constant
within the subfamilies. Omitting the aberrant Micropeplus (fig.
13M), in which the antenna is only nine-segmented with a much
enlarged terminal segment, the forms are either 10- or 11-segmented.
In the former group are the Hypocyptini (fig. 13 N) and two genera
of the Aleocharinae (Oligota and Decusa). All other members of the
family examined have the antennae clearly 11-segmented.
Figure 13 shows some of the variations in form of the antennae.
The method of insertion of the second segment into the first deter-
mines the amount of movement possible as well as the amount of
geniculation. Strongly geniculate antennae are found in Acylophorus
(fig. 13 L), Osorius (fig. 13 K.), and some of the Paederini (subtribe
Cryptobia). Great variation is found in the shape of the basal seg-
ment, as well as in its size and method of insertion in the antennal
fossa.
The vestiture of the antennal segments ranges from the large sparse
tactile setae of figure 13 1 to the dense minute pile indicated on the
distal segments of figure 13 H. No segment anywhere has been ob-
served that is entirely without vestiture, though on some (as fig. 13 L)
it may be exceedingly minute and indistinct. The exceedingly minute
vestiture is generally accompanied by numerous pores, which give a
glandular appearance to the surface (fig. 1B). The extent of this
type of vestiture is rather definite in each species and varies con-
siderably throughout the family. In some it is distinctly confined to
certain segments, but in others diminishes gradually from the apex
and becomes indistinct on the basal segments. In Micropeplus only
the terminal (ninth) segment is so clothed. Creophilus has this type
of vestiture on the last five segments; Hadrotes on the last six. Those
with it on the last seven include Tanyrhinus, Leptochirus, Glenus,
Bolitobius, and Aleochara. Those with it on the terminal eight seg-
ments include Oxytelus, Xantholinus, Philonthus, and Quedius. The
following have it on all but the two basal: Gastrolobium, Lathrotropis,
Hesperobium, and Pinophilus. From this it can be seen that the vesti-
ture of the antennae is not stable within certain tribal limits, and in
some cases even in smaller groups there is considerable variation.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 57
Fic. 13.—Intrafamily variation of the antenna.
A, Xenodusa sharpi Wasm. B, Gastrolobium bicolor (Grav.). C, Lithocharis
ochracea (Grav.). D, Bolitobius cinctus (Grav.). E, Lorinota cingulata (Lec.).
F, Aploderus linearis Lec. G, Stenus sculptilis Csy. H, Glenus flohri Shp. I,
Aleochara lata Grav. J, Phloeocharis subtilissima Mann. K, Osorius mundus Shp.
L, Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse. M, Micropeplus punctatus Lec. N, Hypo-
cyptus longicornis (Payk.).
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The considerable variation in the form and relative size of the
labrum is very hard to classify because of the large number of slight
variations which grade from one to the other. Figure 14 shows a few
of the types. The presence of the membranous processes, such as on
Fic. 14—Intrafamily variation in the labrum.
A, Stenus sculptilis Csy. B, Xenodusa sharpi Wasm. C, Micropeplus punctatus
Lec. D, Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl. E, Pseudopsis obliterata Lec. F, Tany-
rhinus singularis Mann. G, Lithocharis ochracea (Grav.). H, Stilicus angularis
Er. I, Astenus discopunctatus (Say). J, Pinophilus parvipennis Csy. K, Trachy-
sectus confluentus (Say). L, Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.). M, Osorius mundus
Shp. N, Tachinus limbatus Mels. O, Platystethus americanus Er.
Osorius (fig. 14M) and Platystethus (fig. 140), is definite and
usable, as well as the entirely glabrous character of Stenus (fig. 14 A).
The variation in the form and structure of the mandibles is ex-
tremely great. Every gradation is found between massive blunt types
with a large molar area, such as Micropeplus (fig. 15 C), and the very
slender acute type without mola, such as Astenus (fig. 15 L). In some
the terminal tooth is the only one present, as in some species of Geo-
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 59
dromicus, Pelecomalium (fig. 16 A), Tanyrhinus, Lathrimaeum, Pro-
teinus (fig. 15 A), Trigonurus, Osorius, Tachyporus, Bolitobius (fig.
15H), Xenodusa (fig. 15D), and Lorinota. In others from two
Fic. 15.—Intrafamily variations of the mandibles (continued on fig. 16).
A, Proteinus limbatus Makl. B, Phloeocharis subtilissima Mann. C, Micro-
peplus punctatus Lec. D, Xenodusa sharpi Wasm. E, Leptochirus mexicanus Er.
F, Aploderus linearis Lec. G, Oligota esmeraldae Csy. H, Bolitobius cinctus
(Grav.). I, Pseudopsis obliterata Lec. J, Liparocephalus brevipennis Mak.
K, Glenus flohri Shp. L, Astenus discopunctatus (Say).
to many teeth may be produced, placed either near the tip or at any
point along the inner face. One species, Oxryporus (fig. 16H),
has a very small isolated tooth near the outer margin of the mandible
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
at the middle. The condyles are fairly constant in position. The ven-
tral one is a rounded protuberance and is located on the proximal
end of the ventral side near the outer angle. In Oxyporus (fig. 16 H)
this condyle is situated much nearer the inner edge. The dorsal ar-
ticulation is sometimes a definite rounded acetabulum but frequently
is only a hollow curve along the face of an irregular projection. The
prostheca offers considerable variety in form, size, and position. It is
Fre. 16.—Intrafamily variation of the mandibles (continued from fig. 15).
A, Pelecomalium testaceum (Mann.). B, Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.).
C, Paederillus pugetensis Csy. D, Stenus sculptilis Csy. E, Lithocharts ochracea
(Grav.). F,. Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse. G, Hesper obium pallipes (Grav.).
if Oxyporus lateralis Grav. I, Bledins monstratus Csy.
apparently lacking in Micropeplus (fig. 15 C), Astenus (fig. 15 L),
and Stenus (fig. 16D). In Glenus (fig. 15 K), Paederillus (fig. 16 C),
and Creophilus (fig. 2 F) the prostheca is a definite projecting lobe
with numerous minute hairlike processes, while in many other species
it is apparently represented by a more or less definite row or area
of processes proceeding from the surface of the mandible or a groove
thereon, such as in Pelecomalium (fig. 16 A), Proteinus (fig. 15 A),
Acylophorus (fig. 16F), Oxyporus (fig. 16H), Bolitobius (fig.
15 H), and Xenodusa (fig. 15 D).
INO MZ STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 61
The maxillae present a rather large amount of variation in form
and of modification from the typical arrangement of parts. The typical
form has been described for Creophilus (fig. 2G).
Fic. 17.—Intrafamily variation in the maxillae and the maxillary palpi.
A, musculature of maxilla of Thinopinus pictus Lec. B, palpus of Gastrolo-
bium bicolor (Grav.). C, maxilla of Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). D,
maxilla of Pinophilus parvipennis Csy. E, maxilla of Osorius mundus Shp.
F, palpus of Stenus sculptilis Csy. G, palpus of Baryodma bimaculata Grav.
H, palpus of Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse. I, palpus of Micropeplus punctatus
Lec. J, palpus of Pelecomalium testaceum (Mann.). K, palpus of Paederus
laetus Er.
The relative sizes of the cardo, stipes, galea, and lacinia are subject
to much variation. The subfamily Staphylininae is very homogeneous,
there being little variation in any parts from Creophilus and Thino-
pinus (fig. 17 A), In some species the lacinia is more elongate and
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
extends distad almost or quite as far as the galea. These forms gen-
erally have both these structures less hairy and frequently armed
with spines. Of the species examined Geodronucus, Pelecomalium,
Leptochirus, Eumalus, Trigonurus, all the Oxytelini, Steninae, Paede-
rinae (fig. 17 D), Staphylininae (fig. 2G), Oxyporinae, Tachyporini,
and Bolitobiini have the lacinia much shorter than the galea, whereas
it is elongate in Micropeplus, Tanyrhinus, Lathrimaeum, Phloecocharis,
Pseudopsis, Osorius (fig. 17 E), Habrocerus, Hypocyptus (fig. 17 C),
and all the Aleocharinae. .
The maxillary palpi are four-segmented in all the species except
Aleochara and Baryodma (fig. 17 G), in which there is a small ad-
ditional fifth segment. With the exception of Stenus (fig. 17 F), the
first segment is always small and geniculate. It is apparently im-
movably united to the second segment, at least in Thinopinus (fig.
17 A). Any of the succeeding segments may be much expanded, as
the second in Micropeplus (fig. 171), the third in Hypocyptus (fig.
17C) and Paederus (fig. 17K), or the fourth in Pinophilus (fig.
17 D). Occasionally the fourth is longer than any of the others, as
in Acylophorus (fig. 17 H) and Osorius (fig. 17 E), but more fre-
quently it is greatly reduced, as in Gastrolobium (fig. 17 B), Hypo-
cyptus (fig. 17 C), and Stenus (fig. 17 F). In Paederus (fig. 17 K)
the terminal one is short, truncated, and strongly compressed.
In nearly every labium studied the mentum and submentum are
the only heavily sclerotized parts. The submentum is continuous with
the gula between the tentorial pits and is generally separated at the
sides from the postgenae by the submental sutures. These sutures
may be complete from the base of the mentum to the tentorial pits,
they may be incomplete either anteriorly or posteriorly, they may be
united on the midline for a distance in front of the pits, or they may
be entirely lacking. They are complete in Lathrimaeum (fig. 12 H),
Stenus (fig. 12 G), Astenus (fig. 12 B), Hypocyptus (fig. 12 F), and
all others not listed in the three following categories. The anterior
ends of the sutures have disappeared to a varying extent in Pseudop-
sis, Trachysectus, Orus, Philonthus (fig. 12 J), Cafius, Creophilus,
Ocypus, Thinopinus, Hadrotes, Glenus, Acylophorus, Quedius, Tachi-
nus, Tachyporus, and Erchomus. They are visible only at the anterior
end in Tanyrhinus (fig. 12 A). In Trigonurus, Bledius, Platystethus,
Oxvtelus, Aploderus (fig. 12 E), and Osorius they have become united
in front of the tentorial pits so that the submentum is a wholly dis-
tinct sclerite. The sutures are apparently entirely lacking in Micro-
peplus, Eumalus (fig. 12C), Metoponcus (fig. 121), and Oxryporus
(fie. 129):
NOT es STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 63
The mentum is frequently united to the submentum between the
projecting anterior corners of the latter. It is usually trapezoidal
in form but may be variously lobed in front, as in Leptochirus (fig.
18G), Oxyporus (fig. 18 A), and Liparocephalus (fig. 18 E). It fre-
quently bears a few large setae and is nearly always sparsely set with
large pores.
Fic. 18.—Intratamily variation in the form and structure of the
labium. (Only the basal segment of the palpi shown. )
A, Oxyporus lateralis Grav. B, Osorius mundus Shp. C, Lathrimaewm pictum
Fvl. D, Baryodma bimaculata Grav. E, Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl. F,
Trigonurus crotchi Lec. G, Leptochirus mexicanus Er. H, Gastrolobium bi-
color {Grav.).
The prementum is frequently only partly sclerotized. In Trigonurus
(fig. 18 F) there are three small triangular sclerites lying in the mem-
brane between the paraglossal lobes; in Osorius (fig. 18 B) there is
a single large quadrate plate anterior to the base of the palpi; in
Oxvporus (fig. 18 A) the entire basal part of the prementum is sclero-
tized as a long plate; and in other forms there is more or less sclero-
tization of the area between the mentum and the base of the palpi. The
5
604 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q4
palpigers may not be differentiated from the rest of the prementum,
and are frequently entirely membranous. Frequently there are no
glossal or paraglossal lobes visible, as in Osorius (fig. 18 B) and
Leptochirus (fig. 18 G), but in some forms they appear to have united
into a pair of lobes or even a single lobe, as in Lathrimaeum (fig. 18 C)
and Gastrolobium (fig. 18 H), whereas in others there are both glossae
and paraglossae distinct, as in Baryodma (fig. 18D). In Liparo-
cephalus (fig. 18 E) there is a united glossa or ligula which is pro-
longed into a cylindrical sclerotized piece projecting cephalad for
nearly half the length of the first segment of the palpi.
Any of these parts may occasionally bear large setae or minute
setulae. It must always be borne in mind in examining the labium
that the hypopharynx almost invariably is furnished with a pair of
lobes bearing combs of setae which project up behind the paraglossae
and are likely to be mistaken for them. They are always membranous
like the paraglossae, and the distinction between them is sometimes
difficult to make.
The number of segments in the labial palpi is said to vary from
one to four. None have been recorded with less than three except
from the subfamily Aleocharinae, and the only examples with four
are there also. In almost no cases are there definite articulations be-
tween the segments of the palpi, each one being united to the next
by a relatively wide area of membrane. Frequently also the segments
are rather indefinitely sclerotized but usually sufficiently so to prevent
any difficulty in counting them.
No specimens have been studied which have only one segment in
the labial palpi. One species has been observed with two-segmented
palpi. This is Liparocephalus (fig. 19 B), in which the basal segment
is partially divided into two. It is evidently an intermediate step in the
formation of either the three-segmented from the two-segmented
condition or the reverse. The closely related genus Diaulota fre-
quently shows both the extremes and all the intermediate steps in a
single lot of the one species.
The three-segmented condition of the labial palpi is almost uni-
versal throughout the family, but a great deal of variation in form
is apparent. As a rule the labial palpus cannot be said to be filiform,
though certain segments may be slender in certain species. The basal
segment may be longer than either of the others, as in Habrocerus
(fig. 19 E) and Stenus (fig. 19 C), or shorter, as in Hypocyptus (fig.
19 F) and Osorius (fig. 19 J). It may be rather strongly geniculate
as in Stenus (fig. 19 C) and Osorius (fig. 19 J), or may be large and
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 65
cylindrical as in Aleochara (fig. 19 A) and Habrocerus (fig. 19 E).
The middle segment may be greatly expanded as in Stenus (fig. 19 C)
or very short as in Trigonurus (fig. 19 H). The terminal segment is
generally small and narrow as in Stenus (fig. 19 C), Hypocyptus (fig.
19 F), and Paederus (fig. 19 1), but is greatly expanded in Oxyporus
(fig. 19 D) into a very large, compressed, obconical body.
Fic. 19.—Intrafamily variation in the labial palpi.
A, Aleochara lata Grav. B, Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl. C, Stenus
sculptilis Csy. D, Oxyporus lateralis Grav. E, Habrocerus schwarzi Horn. F,
Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). G, Pinophilus parvipennis Csy. H, Trigo-
nurus crotchi Lec. I, Paederus laetus Er. J, Osorius mundus Shp.
A four-segmented labial palpus was found only in Aleochara (fig.
19 A). The palpi of other Aleocharinae are said to be similar.
THE THORAX
A great deal of variation is exhibited in the shape of the pronotum
(figs. 20, 21). It is hard to classify the types, as nearly all gradations
are to be found and nearly every genus or even species is somewhat
different from its near, as well as from its more distant, relatives.
Figures 20 and 21 show some of the forms that occur. Almost any
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fic. 20.—Intrafamily variation of the pronotum (continued on fig. 21).
A, Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.). B, Lithocharis ochracea (Grav.). C, Ocypus
ater (Grav.). D, Felecomalium testaceum (Mann.). E, Trigonurus crotchi
Lec. F, Pseudopsis obliterata Lec. G, Leptochirus mexicanus Er. H, Proteinus
limbatus Makl. I, Platystethus americanus Er. J, Stilicus angularis Er. K, Aleo-
chara lata Gray. L, Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse. M, Tachyporus jocosus
Say. N, Micropeplus punctatus Lec.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 67
of these may be found in any of the larger subfamilies. It is obvious
that the shape of the pronotum cannot be used in the higher classifica-
tion. In certain groups it is useful in generic and specific segregation.
The inflexed portion of the pronotum is generally closely united
with certain elements of the ventral surface and will be discussed in
the section dealing with the prosternal area.
The ventral aspect of the prothorax affords a considerable amount
of variation in structure. The fundamental condition is frequently
Co =
Fic. 21.—Intrafamily variation of the pronotum (continued from fig. 20).
A, Metoponcus varians Shp. B, Cafius lithocharinus Lec. C, Lorinota cingu-
lata (Lec.); D, Osorius mundus Shp. E, Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl.
F, Geodromicus brunneus (Say). G, Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). H,
Aploderus linearis Lec.
obscured by the reduction of sclerites and the obliteration of sutures,
but several important characters are available.
The amount of inflection of the pronotum varies somewhat, but
the size of the postcoxal lobe is more important and usable. These
lobes tend to close the coxal cavities behind, being almost successful
in Leptochirus (fig.22 F). In Lithocharis (fig. 22 B) and Xantholinus
(fig. 23 D) they are lacking entirely.
The sternum varies greatly in length. The longest exposed area
occurs in Leptochirus (fig. 22 F), but the large posterior lobe of
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Astenus (fig. 23 A) surpasses it somewhat though covered by the
coxae. Aleochara (fig. 22 A) has the shortest and most reduced
sternum. This structure is often produced posteriorly between or
under the coxae. Trigonurus (fig. 22 D) has a very small projection,
Fic. 22.—Intrafamily variation in the form and structure of the
prosternal area (continued on fig. 23).
A, Aleochara lata Grav. B, Lithocharis ochracea (Grav.). C, Osorius mundus
Shp. D, Trigonurus crotchi Lec. E, Bledius monstratus Csy. F, Leptochirus
mexicanus Er.
while the extreme development is reached in Astenus (fig. 23 A) and
Pinophilus (fig. 23 B). In these last two the prosternal lobe reaches
the lobes of the inflexed pronotum, thereby closing the coxal cavities
behind. In Pinophilus this closure is completed by the actual fusion
of the sternal lobe to the underside of the lateral lobes.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 69
In Xantholinus (fig. 23 D) and Metoponcus there is a pair of large
triangular sclerites anterior to the sternum and lying free in the edge
of the anterior foramen. They occur in no other group and are said
to be present in only a few genera of the Xantholinini.
The spiracles of the mesothorax normally lie in the intersegmental
membrane in the vicinity of the pronotal lobes. They usually lie in the
Fic. 23.—Intrafamily variation in the form and structure of the
prosternal area (continued from fig. 22).
A, Astenus discopunctatus (Say). B, Pinophilus parvipennis Csy. C, Lorinota
cingulata (Lec.). D, Xantholinus picipennis Lec.
unsclerotized membrane as in Lithocharis (fig. 22 B) and Trigonurus
(fig. 22 D), but are incorporated into the posterior lobe of the pro-
sternum in Pinophilus (fig. 23 B). In Aleochara (fig. 22 A) they are
surrounded by the small peritremes, while in Lorinota (fig. 23 C) these
sclerites are so large as completely to close the coxal cavities behind.
The shape of the elytron is almost as individual as that of the
pronotum (fig. 24). It is impossible to classify these organs by form,
70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fic. 24.—Intrafamily variation of the elytra.
A, Metoponcus varians Shp. B, Tanyrhinus singularis Mann. C, Trigonurus
crotchi Lec. D, Geodromicus brunneus (Say). E, Acylophorus flavicollis
Sachse. F, Proteinus limbatus Makl. G, Oxyporus lateralis Grav. H, Osorius
mundus Shp. I, Bledius monstratus Csy. J, Tachyporus jocosus Say. K, Platy-
stethus americanus Er. L, Paederillus pugetensis Csy. M, Xenodusa sharpi
Wasm. N, Micropeplus punctatus Lec. O, Aleochara lata Grav. P, Liparo-
cephalus brevipennis Makl.
NOI Ls STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER al
but the series shows the range from the long slender types of Meto-
poncus and Tanyrhinus to the short transverse one of Liparocephalus.
The extent of deflection of the sides of the elytra depends in great
part on the convexity of the thorax. In many species this area is rather
abruptly deflexed and of considerable size (figs. 24D, F,K). This
area has frequently been called the epipleurae, but if this term be
used, it should be borne in mind that it is a convenient name for a
region rather than for a definite morphological unit. The epipleuron
is occasionally separated from the discal portion of the elytron by
a raised line as in Bledius (fig. 241) and Tanyrhinus (fig. 24 B). The
epipleuron may bear a distinct line parallel to the outer margin. This
is called the pleural fold by Casey but is more properly termed the
epipleural fold, although its exact significance is not known.
In most of the Xantholinini, such as Metoponcus and Xantholinus,
the so-called elytral suture or median edge of the elytron is some-
what abnormal. The thickness of the elytron along this edge is
gradually diminished so that the whole edge appears to be beveled.
This beveled surface is smooth and unclothed and usually less heavily
pigmented than the rest of the elytron. These two edges overlap one
another when the elytra are at rest. No special morphological sig-
nificance is attributed to this feature as it is only a slight modification
of the normal suture.
The structure of the sterna of the mesothorax and metathorax is
influenced to a large extent by the size, shape, and position of the coxal
cavities of the mesothorax. The actual points of insertion of the coxae
may be widely separated (fig. 25 C) or close together (fig. 25 B)
without changing the relation of the parts. In these two examples
the more widely separated ones are still confluent on the midline,
whereas the approximate ones are separated by the two sternal
processes.
It should be understood that in speaking of the coxal cavities, one
is referring to the entire depression occupied by the coxae. This de-
pression is bounded anteriorly by the mesosternum and generally is
set off posteriorly by a line on the metasternum. The floor of this
depression is made up of the deflexed portions of the mesosterna and
metasterna, and it is generally more or less elevated in the middle to
form a ridge between the two coxal cavities. However, unless the
actual surface of the two sterna meet on the midline or are closely
approximated, the cavities are considered to be confluent. The pos-
terior border of the two cavities is usually marked by a line which
is common to both and delimits anteriorly the process of the
metasternum.
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
N
A
ie
Se
aa
Fic. 25.—Intrafamily variation in the structure of the
mesothoracic and metathoracic sterna.
A, Ocypus ater (Grav.). B, Leptochirus mexicanus Er. C, Metoponcus
varians Shp. D, Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). E, Oxyporus lateralis Grav.
NO. I3 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER HR
The most common situation in this family is for the two cavities
to be confluent on the midline. That is, the processes from the meso-
thorax and metathorax do not meet. In nearly all cases, however, the
mesothoracic process projects more or less between the coxae. This
group includes Geodromicus, Pelecomalium, Lathrimaeum, Proteinus,
Eumalus, Pseudopsis, Bledius, Oxytelus, Aploderus, Osorius, all the
Paederinae, Metoponcus (fig. 25 C), all the Staphylinini (fig. 25 A),
Xanthopygini, and Quediini, Habrocerus, and Liparocephalus.
In Stenus, Hypocyptus (fig. 25 D), and Aleochara the mesothoracic
process attains the metasternum, thereby separating the coxal cavities
without the aid of a metathoracic process.
This situation is just reversed in Platystethus and Oxyporus (fig.
25 E), in which the metathoracic process attains the mesosternum and
separates the cavities.
Frequently, however, the two processes meet midway and take
equal part in the separation. In this group are the following species:
Micropeplus, Leptochirus (fig. 25 B), Trigonurus, Phloeocharis,
Tachyporus, Tachinus, Erchomus, Bolitobius, Oligota, Xenodusa,
Lorinota, and Baryodma. |
The mesosternum is usually very short and not separated from the
pleural areas. Considerable reduction has taken place in some of
the pleural sclerites, but in some species they are distinct and separate.
The metasternum may be very short and transverse as in Hypo-
cyptus (fig. 25 D) or rather elongate as in Metoponcus (fig. 25 C).
In general it is deflexed anteriorly to form most of the floor of the
coxal cavities, but in Metoponcus this part is formed by the inflexed
portion of the mesosternum, and the metasternum has a narrow
emargination at the middle which receives a slender process of the
mesosternum.
The metasternum is always completely separated from the meta-
pleurites. It is variously emarginate posteriorly to fit the coxae of
the metathoracic legs, and generally shows the articulations of the
coxae at the middle.
THE LEGS
The greater part of the large amount of variation in the legs is due
to the relative sizes of the parts rather than to any fundamental differ-
ences in structure. The presence or absence of calcaria or other
setae and the variation in number of tarsal subsegments or tarsomeres
constitute the principal structural differences.
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
The musculature of the leg of Thinopinus (fig. 26A) is very
similar to that of a typical insect leg as given by Snodgrass (1927).
It is not known whether there is any large amount of variation in
other members of the family.
The number of tarsomeres varies from three to five. In some cases
the number differs on the same individual—the so-called heteromer-
ous condition. The great majority of species in this family have five
tarsomeres in each tarsus. This condition is found throughout the
subfamilies Omalinae, Oxytelinae (except Oxytelini), Steninae,
Paederinae, Staphylininae, Oxyporinae, Habrocerinae, and Tachy-
porinae (except Hypocyptin1).
The exceptions include Micropeplus and the Oxytelini with three
tarsomeres in each tarsus, Hypocyptus and Oligota with four, Liparo-
cephalus with four in the front and middle tarsi and five in the pos-
terior tarsi, and Lorinota and Xenodusa with four in the front tarsi
and five in the middle and posterior ones. Aleochara and other aleo-
charinids have all the tarsi with five tarsomeres. Thus it can be
seen that the heteromerous condition is restricted to certain aleochari-
nids, and that five is the normal number. It might be noted that in
certain aleocharinids individuals may be found on which the two tarsi
of one pair differ. They show the actual fusion or division of the
tarsomeres taking place at the present time.
The claws are simple in all the species studied. They vary some-
what in proportions and curvature, but are all similar to the ones
shown (fig. 8 J, etc.).
Several species have been found to have a few very curiously
modified setae (fig. 26L) along the ventral edge of certain of the
segments. In Pelecomalium they occur on the fore legs in a long line
on the tibia and in a small group at the middle of the ventral edge of
the femur, and on the middle legs similarly on the tibia and three or
four on the trochanter. In Lathrimaeum they are situated on both
the fore and middle legs in a double row on the tibiae and a few on
the trochanters. In Proteinus they occur only on the middle legs, a
very few near the tip of the tibia and on the trochanter. These setae
are very distinct and easily recognizable. On the dorsal extremity of
the anterior tibia of Phloeocharis is situated a single seta of unusual
shape. It is short and stout, resembling considerably those of figure
26 L. The fore tibiae of Bledius are much expanded and bear a large
number of very heavy short setae (fig. 26 E).
The union of the femur to the trochanter is subject to considerable
variation. In some the trochanter is attached to the side of the femur,
and in some to the truncated end (figs. 8 F, 26 B,C, D,H, K). The
NO 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 75
Hii
Fic. 26.—Details of the structure of the legs.
A, musculature of the middle leg of Thinopinus pictus Lec. B, trochantero-
femoral joint of posterior leg of Bolitobius cinctus (Grav.). C, posterior coxa
of Oxytelus sculptus Grav. D, posterior coxa of Erchomus ventriculus (Say).
E, group of setae from anterior tibia of Bledius monstratus Csy. F, posterior
coxa of Paederus laetus Er. G, posterior coxa of Stenus sculptilis Csy. H, pos-
terior coxa of Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). I, group of setae from middle
coxa of Tachinus limbatus Mels. J, anterior tibia of Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.).
K, posterior coxa of Habrocerus schwarzi Horn. L, group of setae on middle
trochanter of Proteinus limbatus Makl.
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
situation is frequently very different on different legs of the same
specimen, but the one from the same thoracic segment of different
species can be compared.
The present subfamily classification of the Staphylinidae is based
largely on the shape of the posterior coxae. These segments are
classified as globose, conical, triangular, or transverse, and a distinc-
tion is often attempted between coxae that attain the pleural pieces of
the metasternum and those that do not.
In all the species studied, and indeed almost necessarily so from a
functional viewpoint, the posterior coxae have articulations in two
places. Morphologically the more important of these is the pleural
articulation which is situated at the lateral extremity of the coxa and
at the posterior end of the metathoracic pleurites. This is the most
fundamental point in the coxal area and the articulation is probably
never lost. The coxa has also a second articulation with the sternum,
usually near the midline. Frequently the lateral parts of the coxa are
covered by the sternum and are more or less invisible from the ex-
terior. It is, then, the exposed portion which has given rise to the
above classification, but obviously this is not a fundamental separation.
The differences between coxae that are “‘ small and globose”’ (fig.
26G), those that are conical (fig. 26 F), those that are triangular
(fig. 26K), and those that are transverse (fig. 26 C, D, H) are mat-
ters of degree and form a continuous series. It should be possible
to find a more consistent and fundamental character to express the
apparent differences.
There seem to be three distinct types of coxal structure. In many
species the coxa is conical or triangular without expansions beyond
the lines connecting the three articulations. In others the side of the
coxa is expanded laterally and caudally into a plate which lies under-
neath the femur and below (dorsad) the level of the sternum. In
the third group there is an upper lamella of the coxa which is expanded
laterally and posteriorly into a plate which is nearly at the level of
the sternum and completely covers the lower portion of the coxa.
These three are the only morphological types recognized.
The following species belong to the first group, having the coxa not
expanded laterally and caudally: Osorius, Stenus (fig. 26G), the
Paederinae (fig. 26 F), the Staphylininae, and possibly Liparocepha-
lus. These are the ones generally said to have the coxae conical or
triangular.
The second group, those having the coxae expanded laterally and
caudally into a plate that is partly covered by the femur in repose,
frequently also have a slight expansion over the base of the tro-
NO: 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER gl
chanter but not extended laterally. It includes Micropeplus, the
Omaliinae, all the Oxytelinae except Osorius, Hypocyptus (fig. 26 H),
Tachyporus, Tachinus, Erchomus (fig. 26D), Bolitobius, and all the
Aleocharinae except possibly Liparocephalus. These are chiefly the
forms said to have the coxae transverse.
The third group contains only Habrocerus (fig. 26K). The coxa
is rather triangular, but the upper surface is broadly expanded into
a lamella which covers part of the femur in repose and extends laterally
clear to the pleural articulation.
Micropeplus appears to be distinct from all the others in the presence
of a narrow separate strip extending from the trochanteral articulation
to the pleural one. It may be a secondary separation from the coxa
but is entirely unique.
THE ABDOMEN
The abdomen of Staphylinidae is composed of 10 segments in all
the species studied. In all cases the first segment is represented only
by the tergite and rarely a paratergite on each side behind the spiracle
(fig. 9 A, pit. 7).
The second segment may be entirely membranous, as is apparently
the case with Micropeplus. It may be represented by a tergite alone,
as in Trigonurus, Phloeocharis, Osorius, Stenus, Gastrolobium, Hes-
perobium, Paederillus, Paederus, Lathrotropis, Hypocyptus, Liparo-
cephalus, Xenodusa, Lorinota, Aleochara, and Baryodma. A pair of
small paratergites is present at the sides in Geodromicus, Tanyrhinus,
Lathrimaeum, Pseudopsis, Creophilus (fig. 9 A) and all the Staphy-
linini, Glenus, Acylophorus, Quedius, Oxyporus, Habrocerus, Tachy-
porus, Tachinus, Erchomus, Bolitobius, and possibly Oligota. Be-
sides these sclerites the following also have some sclerotization of
the sternite: Pelecomalium, Proteinus, Ewmalus, Xantholinus, and
possibly Metoponcus. The greatest development of this segment, how-
ever, is in the tribe Oxytelini. The species of this tribe have all the
sclerites completely developed so as to appear identical with the suc-
ceeding segments in structure.
The third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh segments are very
similar in structure. They each have a normal tergite and sternite
and usually one or two paratergites on each side. Only Leptochirus,
Eumalus, and Osorius are entirely without paratergites, and the
following have only one on each side: Micropeplus, all the Omaliinae
(fig. 27 D), Proteinus, Trigonurus, Phloeocharis, Pseudopsis, Stenus,
and Habrocerus. All the other species examined have two paratergites
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
on each side of the segments from three to seven. Figure 9 A shows
the normal form of these sclerites. Modifications are chiefly in size,
distinctness of the sutures, and vestiture. Xenodusa has the para-
tergites modified to form the hairy lobes or trichomes (fig. 27 B)
which project over the succeeding segment.
ak SS
————
Th ie COCSOG UDI OB OWE PTeG
Fic. 27—Details of the structure of the abdomen, and the intrafamily
variation in the pattern of the intersegmental membranes.
A, ventral aspect of abdomen of Gastrolobium bicolor (Grav.). B, paratergites
and trichome of Xenodusa sharpi Wasm. C, pattern of intersegmental membrane
of Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.). D, paratergite of Geodromicus brunneus (Say).
E, pattern of Paederus laetus Er. F, group of setae from sternite of Bolitobius
cinctus (Grav.) ; G, pattern of Xantholinus picipennis Lec. H, pattern of Stenus
sculptilis Csy. I, posterior margin of sixth tergite of Acylophorus flavicollis
Sachse. J, pattern of Osorius mundus Shp.
The membranes between these intermediate segments are usually
marked in a definite pattern with minute spots of regular shape and
deeper color. They appear to be actual sclerotizations in the membrane.
These patterns are fairly constant in the various groups. The most
frequent pattern is one of small rectangular areas arranged either
in transverse or in longitudinal rows or both, often changing from
NO. 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 79
one to the other in a single membrane (fig. 27 C, E). This pattern is
found on Micropeplus, all the Omaliinae, all the Paederinae, Oxyporus,
and Bolitobius.
Two species have a definitely hexagonal pattern (fig. 27H). They
are Leptochirus and Stenus. In Eumalus, Pseudopsis, and Osorius
(fig. 27 J) the areas are very small and angular in shape and grade
into elongate transverse pieces near the edges of the membrane.
The subfamily Staphylininae is characterized by a pattern of ir-
regular-sized areas arranged in longitudinal bands separated by clear
membrane (fig. 9 F). Xantholinus and Metoponcus differ somewhat
in having the areas strongly angular and frequently triangular or
lozenge-shaped. Acylophorus is more or less intermediate between
these and the typical form for the subfamily, and Quedius is marked
only with longitudinal rows of very small spots.
Oxwytelus and Bledius have a pattern very similar to that shown in
figure 9 H except that the bands run transversely. In Aploderus and
Platystethus there is no actual pattern, as the minute dots appear like
an even stipple.
In some the membranes appear perfectly clear even under a fairly
high magnification. These include Proteinus, Trigonurus, Habrocerus,
Hypocyptus, Tachyporus, Tachinus, Erchomus, and all the Aleochari-
nae studied.
Various modifications of form and vestiture are found on the ab-
domen, but these are not very constant and are frequently modifica-
tions of only one sex. The large posterior lobes on the fifth seg-
ment of certain males of Gastrolobium (fig. 27 A) and the circular
or crescentic groups of setae and pores on the same species are ex-
amples of sexual modifications. These groups of setae (fig. 27 A, 1)
are called foveae in the literature and consist of a circle or band of
setae set in moderate sockets and completely surrounded by a large
number of pores which give a very rough appearance to the surface.
The discal setae of Bolitobius (fig. 27 F) do not have a definite
socket but are set into the apex of a U-shaped area marked only by
a fine line on the surface. The posterior margins of the intermediate
segments of Acylophorus (fig. 27 1) are crenulate with the depressions
much deeper on the ectal surface than on the ental. A rather large
seta is set at the anterior end of each depression.
The eighth segment is composed of only a tergite and a sternite.
The tergite bears a spiracle similarly to the preceding segments and
generally is narrower and rather strongly tapering. The eighth seg-
ment is usually considered to be part of the genitalia. In the case of
the female it is therefore treated in that connection, but in the males
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
it is more convenient to restrict the discussion of the “ genitalia”
to the consideration of the genital tube or aedeagus alone. For this
reason the eighth and ninth segments of the males will be discussed
briefly here.
The posterior border of the eighth segment is frequently modified
in the male. This modification may take the form of lobation, emar-
gination or incisure, abnormal vestiture or sculpture, etc. It is gen-
erally the last visible segment of the abdomen, though it may be so
far retracted within the preceding segments as to be invisible.
The ninth segment is represented by a tergite, a sternite, and two
small lateral plates bearing the valvulae or gonapophyses. The gona-
pophyses are present only in the subfamily Staphylininae excepting
the Xantholinini. In the other species studied the lateral plates (mor-
phologically the bases of the segmental appendages) are present, gen-
erally large, and frequently appear much like gonapophyses but with-
out any sign of basal articulation. In some species these two plates are
joined by a narrow or wide bridge on either the dorsal or the ventral
aspect. The species in which these lateral plates are thus united in-
clude Geodromicus, Pelecomalium, Tanyrhinus, Lathrimaeum, Stenus,
Gastrolobium, Hesperobium, Lathrotropis, Stilicus, Trachysectus,
Hypocyptus, Tachyporus (fig. 28D), and Bolitobius. The species
examined in which these sclerites are not united include Trigonurus,
Phloecocharis, Bledius, Oxytelus, Metoponcus, Xantholinus, X enodusa,
Lorinota, Aleochara, and Baryodma. The greatest amount of union
was found in Bolitobius in which the long sclerite formed is obvi-
ously dorsal. On the other hand in Tachyporus the union is said by
Muir (1920) to be ventral, and the present observations confirm this.
A very much more remarkable modification than any other is found
in the eighth and ninth segments of Habrocerus (fig. 28E). The
spiracles of the eighth segment are the most important landmarks and
are situated on the dorsal aspect (sp.8). According to the inter-
pretation of Muir (1920), which differs somewhat from that of
Weber (1911):
.... the eighth segment is highly modified and consists of four pieces. A
large pair of pleural plates, on which the eighth spiracles are situated, embrace
the lateral area, and from the apex of each a large, spine-like style arises; the
dorsal aspect consists of a very short tergite, and the sternite consists of a
large plate more heavily chitinized round the edges..... The lateral portion
of the eighth tergite articulates with the lateral edges of the sternite and also
articulates in a depression at the base of the pleural plates. .. . The ninth seg-
ment is highly modified and shaped like an oat. The distal and visible portion
consists of a pair of pointed and slightly curved lobes connected in a V-shaped
piece on the dorsal aspect; the basal and internal portions consist of a mem-
NO. 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 81
branous plate chitinized along the edges. On the ventral aspect at the meeting
of the lobes there is a small trident body attached to a rod which lies free
within the segment... . . The anus opens on a membrane between the lobes;
the rectum can be protruded.
Since Muir’s figures of H. capillaricornis agree essentially with the
structure of H. schwarzi, a discussion of his interpretation in the light
of the present material seems to be justified. The large pleural plates
are in the present species membranous except for a framework of
sclerotic rods or struts. The spiracles lie on the dorsal aspect of these
and identify them as paratergites. The transverse piece behind these
and articulating with them probably does represent the tergite, but
it is completely fused with the ventral plate by means of the sclero-
tized bars. The trident body appears in this species to be distinct from
the ninth segment, and the lateral parts seem to articulate with the
middle one and with the end of the supporting rod. The membranes
forming the aedeagus are practically invisible in this specimen.
THE GENITALIA
The male genital tube in this family is characterized by the high
state of specialization, by the modification of the median lobe for the
evagination of the internal sac by blood pressure, and by the absence
of a basal piece. Some of the most extreme modifications occur in
the lateral lobes, which are always present and usually separate.
The most frequent type of genitalia is that represented in figures
9 G and 28 J, K. It consists of a strong sclerotic tube with a bul-
bous base, and a median foramen small and situated ventrally at the
junction of the tube and bulb and between the base of the lateral lobes.
The lateral lobes may be united into a plate basally but form two
narrow lobes which usually lie along the median lobe. This type has
been found in the following species: Geodromicus, Pelecomalium,
Lathrimaeum, Eumalus, Trigonurus, Phloeocharis (fig. 28 J), Creo-
philus (fig.9 G), Staphylinus, Ocypus, Philonthus (fig. 28 K), Cafius,
Hadrotes, Acylophorus, and Quedius. It seems to characterize the
subfamily Staphylininae except for the tribe Xantholinini.
The Xantholinini are said by Sharp and Muir (1912) to be “ one
of the most highly specialized forms of Coleoptera.” The two species
studied do not show the complicated structure of the tip of the aedeagus
of Sharp and Muir’s species but are rather simpler than many others.
In Xantholinus (fig. 28 F), according to Sharp and Muir (1912):
.... the bulbous median lobe is of an extreme form, being egg-shape, with a
small membranous distal portion to which the greatly reduced lateral lobes are
attached. The median lobe is formed of dorsal and ventral sclerites, round, and
82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fic. 28.—Intrafamily variation in the genitalia of the male.
A, Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.). B, Stenus sculptilis Csy. C, Micropeplus
punctatus Lec., ventral aspect. D, ninth segment and genital tube of Tachyporus
jocosus Say, dorsal aspect. E, eighth and ninth segments and genital tube of
Habrocerus schwarzi Horn, dorsal aspect. F, Xantholinus picipenms Lec.,
dorsal aspect. G, Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl., lateral aspect. H, Xenodusa
sharpi Wasm., lateral aspect. I, Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.), lateral aspect.
J, Phlococharis subtilissima Mann., lateral aspect. K, Philonthus aeneus (Rossi),
lateral aspect.
NO? £3 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 83
connected by a semi-membranous band; the median orifice is at the distal end,
and the median foramen slightly in front (or basal) on the ventral face. These
two openings are separated only by a chitinous plate formed by the basal part
of the lateral lobes which are extremely reduced.
This description of Xantholinus glabratus (p. 499) is equally ap-
plicable to our species, X. picipennis. In Metoponcus the basal part
of the median lobe is much more elongate and the lateral lobes are
more slender than in Xantholinus.
In some forms there are more heavily sclerotized bars or struts in
the median and lateral lobes. They are apparently strengthening or
supporting structures and frequently articulate with each other. In
Hypocyptus (fig. 28 A) the lateral lobes each bear three of these
structures, articulating with each other and with a fourth pair con-
nected to the median lobe. This latter pair is thought to be the pair
of median struts mentioned by Sharp and Muir (1912). The lateral
lobes are present on all forms examined. In Xantholinus (fig. 28 F)
and Metoponcus they are very small and not specially modified. In
Cafius they are also rather short but are otherwise similar to the other
Staphylinini. Hypocyptus (fig. 28 A) represents the greatest develop-
ment of these organs in point of size.
In Micropeplus (fig. 28 C) the lateral lobes arise from the sides
of the median lobe and unite for a short distance on the dorsal surface.
They are flat and unmodified and do not extend as far as the tip
of the median lobe.
The genitalia of the female consist of the eighth, ninth, and tenth
segments of the abdomen and their appendages. The eighth segment
is present as a distinct tergite and sternite; the ninth segment is mem-
branous except for a pair of three-segmented appendages and oc-
casionally a sternal sclerite ; and the tenth segment is represented only
by the tergite. This is substantially the characterization given by
Tanner (1927) for beetles in general.
The members of the Staphylinidae for the most part appear to be
different from any forms studied by Tanner in the amount of reduc-
tion and loss of parts. Only a very few of the species included in the
present study have any coxites or styli, the valvifers are absent in
at least one species, and the paraprocts are frequently lacking. The
one Staphylinid studied by Tanner, Creophilus villosus, is one of
the very few which possess all the typical structures.
The eighth tergite and sternite are generally not specially modified
in the female. They are broadly rounded as in Oxyporus (fig. 29 A)
or truncated as in Aleochara (fig. 30 E). The only outstanding ex-
ceptions are in the subfamily Tachyporinae, where there are very
84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fic. 29.—Intrafamily variation in the genitalia of the female
(continued on fig. 30)-
A, Oxyporus lateralis Grav., ventral aspect. B, same, dorsal aspect. C, Geo-
dromicus brunneus (Say), ventral aspect. D, Lathrimaeum pictum Fvl., dorsal
aspect. FE, same, ventral aspect. F, Tachinus limbatus Mels., ventral aspect.
G, same, dorsal aspect. H, Trigonurus crotchi Lec., ventral aspect. I, Oxytelus
sculptus Grav., ventral aspect.
NOLS} STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 85
great modifications of the posterior border of both these sclerites. In
Tachinus*the tergite (fig. 29 G) 1s divided into three lobes. The two
outer ones are slender, and each bears a very long seta at its apex.
The median process is semicircular but produced into a sharp point at
the middle. In other species this median process may be much longer
than the lateral ones, or it may itself be bifid or even trifid. The
Fic. 30.—Intrafamily variation in the genitalia of the female
(continued from fig. 29).
A, Micropeplus punctatus Lec.; B, Stenus sculptilis Csy.; C, Pinophilus parvi-
pennis Csy.: D, Paederus laetus Er.; E, Aleochara lata Grav.; F, Pseudopsis
obliterata Lec. All ventral aspects. ,
sternite is even more highly modified in Tachinus (fig. 29 F). The
border is divided into six lobes of about equal length, but considerably
shorter than the lateral lobes of the tergite. The outer pair on each
side are rather slender, and each bears a long seta at the apex. The
two median lobes are wider, and each bears a brush of six very
straight short setae.
The ninth tergite and sternite are said to be nearly always mem-
branous (Tanner, 1927). The only exceptions recorded by him are
86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
two species with a sclerotized tergite and one with a sternite. In the
present family there are apparently several more exceptions in the
sternites. Pacderus (fig. 30 D) has a distinct sagittate sternite of the
ninth segment which lies between and under the large valvifers.
Pinophilus (fig. 30 C) appears to have a large sternite also.
In practically every species examined there is a pair of large
sclerites on the ventral surface which are interpreted as the valvifers.
In most cases, therefore, it is found that the coxites are entirely
lacking. Complete coxites with styli are found in all the Staphylinini,
Xanthopygini, Quediini, and Oxyporinae studied, and also in all the
Omaliini. This latter tribe is very different from the others, however,
in that the genitalia are much elongated and have large membranous
areas between the sclerites. The first group includes Creophilus (fig.
9 B, C) and Oxyporus (fig. 29 A, B). The Omaliini examined in this
regard were Geodromicus (fig. 29 C), Tanyrhinus, and Lathrimaeum
(fig. 29D, FE). In Oxyporus there are apparently no styli on the
coxites. In Geodromucus the coxites are two-segmented but lack styli.
In Lathrimaeum the valvifers appear to be fused to form an elongate
median ventral sclerite, bearing apically the two small coxites and
their styl1.
The sternite of the tenth segment is entirely membranous in all
members of the family, but the tergite is represented by a large broad
sclerite, the proctiger (figs. 9 C, 29 B). Apparently only a few species
possess the appendages of the ninth segment called the paraprocts
by Tanner. They are present in Creophilus (fig. 9 B,C) and other
Staphylininae, in Oryporus (fig. 29 A), in Lathrimaeum (fig. 29 D,
FE), and probably others.
In Oxytelus (fig. 291) the entire ventral aspect of the ninth and
tenth segments is membranous. The dorsal side is composed of a wide
proctiger and a pair of narrow lobes at the sides. Micropeplus (fig.
30 A) is still more reduced. At first sight the eighth tergite and
sternite appear to be part of the genitalia, but the tergite bears a pair
of tiny but distinct spiracles. The genitalia form a more or less cir-
cular structure without any definite sclerites.
DISCUSSION
VARIATION AND RANGE OF STRUCTURE
Though it has often been said that the beetles, and even the entire
class of insects, are characterized by a remarkable degree of uni-
formity of structure, a beetle almost always being immediately recog-
nizable as a beetle, yet it is equally true in both the order and the
a ac
NO. 13 STAPHYLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 87
entire class that there is an amazing variety of divergence in the less
fundamental characters. The family Staphylinidae, being one of
the largest natural families of animals, is remarkably homogeneous
in general habitus and form, but presents considerable range of varia-
tion in many of its structures.
In a group of this size it is to be expected that certain characters
which are constant in one series of species will be more variable in
others. This is found frequently to be the case. A certain subfamily
shows a regular development of a given character which thus charac-
terizes it, but the same character may occur scattered here and there
in other groups, being too variable for use in classification.
Before any character can be safely used in classification, it is neces-
sary to know the extent of variation of that character throughout the
group being classified. If it is reasonably constant and varies only
in definite ways and within definite limits, then it can be safely used.
If, on the other hand, it be found to be very variable within small
groups, or to vary through a large number of slightly separated forms,
it can be used only with extreme care or only in certain cases.
The range of variation in each structure or set of structures is
discussed in detail in the section on the comparative morphology of
the family. It may be seen therein that the amount of variation in
the numerous characters differs very greatly.
CHARACTERS AVAILABLE FOR CLASSIFICATION
The existing classification of the Staphylinidae, as has been pointed
out, is based almost entirely upon such characters as can be seen in
pinned specimens and with an absolute minimum of dissection, amount-
ing to no more than the removal of a leg to permit its examination
under a microscope. The study here made reveals a long series of
structures that may be added to the list of available characters.
Obviously, out of the many structures to be seen on the body of
an insect, not all will be of aid in attempting a classification of the
higher groups. Some are apparently usable only for the identification
of species; some appear only in small groups such as genera. Some
are evidently variable, and others, considered in the light of the totality
of structures, seem to have no phylogenetic significance. We are com-
pelled, then, to exercise a certain degree of judgment, based upon an
examination of as many species as possible, in selecting those char-
acters which will probably be significant as affording bases for de-
fining the various categories. Out of the survey here presented the
following list of characters has been selected as offering probably the
6
88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
most significant indications of relationship. That is, they present
tangible differences between the various groups, while at the same
time they are of sufficient constancy throughout any one or more
groups to present an appearance of reliability. It is evident, however,
that only an examination of a very large proportion of the species of
the family can permit a dependable evaluation. The following are the
structural characters suggested :
Condition of the coronal suture.
Condition of the epicranial arm or frontal sutures.
Condition of the clypeal area.
Condition of the occipital suture.
Position of the antennal fossae.
Presence of ocelli.
Absence of dorsal tentorial pits.
Condition of the gular area.
Segmentation of the antennae.
10. Presence of processes on the labrum.
11. Dentition of the mandibles.
12. Condition of the prostheca.
13. Presence of serial pores on the mandibles.
14. Relative size and shape of the lacinia and galea of maxillae.
15. Segmentation of the maxillary palpi.
16. Size and shape of the terminal segments of the maxillary palpi.
17. Shape of the submentum.
18. Shape of the glossae and paraglossae.
19. Segmentation of the labial palpi.
20. Shape of the terminal segment of the labial palpi.
21. Condition of postcoxal lobe of pronotum.
22. Condition of the prosternal area.
23. Enclosure of the front coxal cavities by various means.
24. Condition of mesothoracic peritremes.
25. Presence of corneous plates in the anterior foramen of prothorax.
26. Separation of middle coxal cavities.
27. Condition of elytral suture.
28. Segmentation of the tarsi.
29. Specially modified setae of the legs.
30. Trochantero-femoral joint.
31. Structure and position of the posterior coxae.
2. Condition of second abdominal segment.
33. Paratergites of abdomen.
34. Mosaic patterns of intersegmental membranes of abdomen.
35. Presence of gonapophyses in male genitalia.
36. Condition of lateral plates in female genitalia.
37. Modifications of the aedeagus in the male.
38. Condition of valvifers, coxites, paraprocts, and proctiger in the female
genitalia.
39. Modifications of the eighth segment in the female.
40. Condition of the ninth and tenth segments in the female.
Oo ON eS
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 89
THE VALUE OF EXISTING CLASSIFICATIONS AND SOME SUGGESTIONS
CONCERNING THEM
As far as the present study is concerned, no major changes are
indicated in the existing classification of the higher categories of the
family. However, there will be numerous changes in position or in
the relative degree of isolation of certain groups.
It has been very frequently noted that the conventional statement
of a character used in a classification may have no precise morpho-
logical meaning except as indicating that some peculiarity exists. Some
of these characters are discussed below.
The present subfamily classification, as well as that of all the smaller
categories, is to a large extent based on “key” characters. That is,
there has generally been in this family no distinction between classi-
fication and identification. This has led necessarily to a system based
on obvious and readily observable characters, rather than on the ones
particularly suited to show the fundamental relationships. Each of
these characters has been discussed by itself in the comparative section.
The differences between existing classifications are chiefly those
of the differences of opinion regarding the isolation of each group,
and the components of it, and are to a large extent due to the use
of an insufficient number of categories. Although the family un-
doubtedly contains several large and homogeneous groups, there are
also a number of very isolated and extreme forms which have no very
close relatives and are yet obviously members of the family. Some
authors tend to unite these with their nearest neighbors, whereas others
attempt to show the great divergence by separating them as distinct
tribes or subfamilies. The purpose of classification is to show not
only the relationships between animals but also the degree of the
difference between them.
In European catalogues the genus Micropeplus has sometimes been
united with the subfamily Omaliinae. More frequently, however,
it'is given subfamily rank. It seldom shows the typical structure of
the family but has several modifications not found elsewhere. It ap-
pears to be more isolated from all the other Staphylinids than the ex-
tremes of that family are from each other. It is therefore thought
probable that it will have to be removed as a separate family. This
has already been done by some writers.
In the Leng Catalogue (1920) Proteinus, Leptochirus, Eumalus,
Trigonurus, Phloeocharis, and Pseudopsis are united in the subfamily
Piestinae, and thereby are separated from the Oxytelinae. In the
catalogue of Eichelbaum (1909) these are all included in the Oxyteli-
go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
nae. They have sufficient characters in common which differ from the
Oxytelini to justify a separation between the two groups. Leng’s ar-
rangement is perhaps better for this reason.
Osorius is quite distinct in many respects from the Oxytelini. Its
relationship is perhaps best expressed by an assignment as a tribe in
the subfamily Oxytelinae equal to the rest of the subfamily or the
tribe Oxytelini.
The members of the Xantholinini studied are very distinct frorn
the rest of the Staphylininae. They differ from the tribe Staphylinini
more than do the members of the tribes Xanthopygini and Quediini,
and perhaps should be more isolated in the system. It may be that
they should rank as a separate subfamily, but this would obscure the
facts of their relationship to the other Staphylininae.
Habrocerus and Hypocyptus both differ considerably from the other
Tachyporinae. Habrocerus differs perhaps more widely and is prob-
ably correctly placed as a separate subfamily, although its nearest
relatives are the Tachyporini. Hypocyptus is more distinct from the
Tachyporini and Bolitobiini than they are from each other, but per-
haps insufficiently so to be isolated in a separate subfamily.
The linear arrangement of subfamilies is unsatisfactory as it pre-
cludes the possibility of showing relationships except in special cases.
No better system has been suggested, and it is merely necessary to
bear in mind the fact that the arrangement is more or less arbitrary.
The classifications in use have been gradually improved to the
point where they seem to reflect the general facts in a true picture.
Minor refinements will probably be necessary for a long time to come,
and the judgment of individual workers will probably indicate many
changes.
LIST OF SPECIES STUDIED
Subfamily MICROPEPLINAE
Micropeplus punctatus Lec.
Subfamily OMALIINAE
Tribe OMALIINI
Geodromicus brunneus (Say)
Pelecomalium testaceum (Mann. )
Tanyrhinus singularis Mann.
Lathrimaeum pictum FvIl.
Subfamily OXYTELINAE
Tribe PROTEININI
Proteinus limbatus Makl.
Tribe LEPTOCHIRINI
Leptochirus mexicanus Er,
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER gI
Tribe ELEUSININI
Eumalus nigrella (Lec.)
Tribe PIESTINI
Trigonurus crotchi Lec.
Tribe PHLOEOCHARINI
Phloeocharis subtilissima Mann.
Tribe OXYTELINI
Bledius monstratus Csy.
Platystethus americanus Er.
Oxytelus sculptus Grav.
Aploderus linearis Lec.
Tribe OSORIINI
Osorius mundus Shp.
Subfamily STENINAE
Stenus sculptilis Csy.
Subfamily PAEDERINAE
Tribe PAEDERINI
Gastrolobium bicolor (Grav.)
Hesperobium pallipes (Grav.)
Paederillus littorarius (Grav.)
Paederillus pugetensis Csy.
Paederus laetus Er.
Lathrotropis jacobina (Lec.)
Lithocharis ochracea (Grav.)
Stilicus angularis Er.
Trachysectus confluentus (Say)
Orus punctatus Csy.
Astenus discopunctatus (Say)
Tribe PINOPHILINI
Pinophilus parvipennis Csy.
Subfamily STAPHYLININAE
Tribe XANTHOLININI
Metoponcus varians Shp.
Xantholinus picipennis Lec.
Tribe STAPHYLININI
Creophilus villosus (Gray.)
Staphylinus cinnamopterus Grav.
Ocypus ater (Grav.)
Thinopinus pictus Lec.
Philonthus politus (Linn.)
Philonthus alumnus Er,
Cafius canescens Makl.
Cafius seminitens Horn
Cafius lithocharinus Lec.
Hadrotes crassus (Mann.)
Tribe XANTHOPYGINI
Glenus flohri Shp.
Tribe QUEDIINI
Acylophorus flavicollis Sachse
Quedius limbifer Horn
g2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Subfamily OXYPORINAE
Oxyporus lateralis Gray.
Subfamily HABROCERINAE
Habrocerus schwarzi Horn
Subfamily TACHY PORINAE
Tribe HYPOCYPTINI
Hypocyptus longicornis (Payk.)
Tribe TACHYPORINI
Tachyporus maculicollis Lec.
Tachinus limbatus Mels.
Erchomus ventriculus (Say)
Tribe BOLITOBIINI
Bolitobius cinctus (Grav.)
Subfamily ALEOCHARINAE
Tribe OLIGOTINI
Oligota esmeraldae Csy.
Tribe BOLITOCHARINI
Liparocephalus brevipennis Makl.
Tribe MYRMEDONIINI
Xenodusa sharpi Wasm.
Lorinota cingulata (Lec.)
Tribe ALEOCHARINI
Aleochara lata Grav.
Baryodma bimaculata (Grav.) -
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON FIGURES
TA, first anal vein. C, costa vein.
2A, second anal vein. c, condyle.
AnlA, anal arculus. cal, calcar of tibia.
AntA, anterior arculus, can, canaliculi.
a, condyle. cd, cardo.
ab, abdomen. cm. I, first connecting membrane of
acs, antecostal suture. male genitalia.
aclp, anteclypeus. cp, body of the tentorium.
af, antennal fossa. cr, crassa.
afor, anterior foramen of prothorax. ct, coxo-trochanteral joint.
an, anus. Cu, cubitus vein.
anf, anal fan of wing. CEACOXA:
annr, anterior notal ridge. cxa, coxal condyle.
anp, anterior notal wing process. cxc, coxal cavity.
ata, anterior arm of tentorium. cxla, coxal articulation.
atp, anterior tentorial pit. cxp, pleural coxal process.
ax. 1, first axillary sclerite. cxt, coxite.
ax.2, second axillary sclerite.
ax. 3, third axillary sclerite. dia, dorsal arm of tentorium.
axc, axillary cord. dtp, dorsal tentorial pit.
axp, axillary process.
e, compound eye.
bp, basal piece of male genitalia. ej, ejaculatory duct.
bs, basisternum. ely, elytron.
NO. 13
em, emargination.
emp, empodium.
epi, epicranium.
epm, epimeron.
epm, II, mesothoracic epimeron.
epm, III, metathoracic epimeron.
epms, epimeral suture.
eps, episternum.
eps. II, mesothoracic episternum.
eps. III, metathoracic episternum.
epsr, episternal ridge.
fl, flagellum of male genitalia.
fm, femur.
for, foramen magnum (occipital fora-
men).
fr, frons.
fs, furcasternum.
fu, furca, sternal apophyses united on
median base.
fua, lateral arms of furca.
ga, galea.
ge, gena.
gl, glossa.
gony, gonytheca.
gs, gular sutures. .
gu, gula.
hgw, hinge of wing.
hphy, hypopharynx.
hypo, hypomera, inflexed margin of
pronotum.
I-III, thoracic segments.
I-10, abdominal segments.
is, internal sac of male genitalia.
ists, intersternal suture. P
lb, labium.
Ic, lacinia.
ll, lateral lobes.
Im, labrum.
Ip, labial palpus.
M,, first branch of media vein.
M;, fourth branch of media vein.
mad, dorsal articulation of mandible.
maf, mandibular fold.
mat, mandibular tooth.
STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 93
mav, ventral articulation of mandible.
mb, intersegmental membrane or con-
junctivum.
mbps, membranous area of prescutum.
md, mandible.
mdpp, prothoracic pleural muscle disk.
mdpt, metathoracic pleural muscle
disk.
nidsp, prothoracic sternal muscle disk.
mdss, mesothoracic sternal muscle disk.
mdst, metathoracic sternal muscle disk.
mdts, mesothoracic tergal muscle disk.
mdit, metathoracic tergal muscle disk.
muesp, mesosternal process.
mf, median foramen of male genitalia.
ml, median lobe of male genitalia.
mls, median lobe of scutum.
mo, median orifice of male genitalia.
mp, mandibular pore.
mrn, marginal ridge of pronotum.
mt, mentum,
mtla, episternal
chantin.
murc, retractor muscle of claws.
musd, muscle disk.
mx, maxilla.
mxa, maxillary articulation.
mxp, maxillary palpus.
articulation of tro-
nepm, notepimeron,
o, ocellus.
Oc, occiput.
ocs, Occipital suture.
ol, oculata.
p, pore.
papt, paraproct.
pelp, postclypeus.
peri, peritreme.
pge, postgena.
pgl, paraglossa.
pl, pleuron,
pla, pleural apophysis.
pld, pleuradema.
plf, palpifer.
plg, palpiger.
pins, pleuro-notal suture.
pir, pleural ridge or apophysis.
pls, pleural suture.
94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
pn, postnotum.
pna, postnotal articulation. -
pnp, posterior notal wing process.
ponr, posterior notal ridge.
pos, postoccipital suture.
pph, postphragma.
ppl, prephragmal lobe.
ppr, prephragmal ridge.
prf, prosthecal foramen.
prmt, prementum.
prnl, pronotal lobe.
pron, pronotum.
prp, prepectus.
prph, prephragma,
prss, prosternal suture.
prth, prostheca.
psc, prescutum.
pscl, prescutal lobe.
pscs, prescutal suture.
pss, prescutoscutellar suture.
psss, prescutoscutal suture.
pta, posterior arm of tentorium.
plar, pretarsus.
ptgr, proctiger.
ptp, posterior tentorial pit (gular pit).
pts, paratergal suture.
ptt. 1, first abdominal paratergite.
ptt. 2, second abdominal paratergite.
ptt. 3, third abdominal paratergite.
ptt. 7, seventh abdominal paratergite.
pwp, pleural wing process.
R, radius vein.
R,, first branch of radius vein.
R:, second branch of radius vein.
s. I, prothoracic sternite.
s. II, mesothoracic basisternum.
s. III, metathoracic basisternum.
s.2, second abdominal sternite.
s. 3, third abdominal sternite.
s.8, eighth abdominal sternite.
s.9, ninth abdominal sternite.
sa, sternal apophysis.
sart, sternal articulation.
Sc, subcosta vein.
scl, scutellum.
sclp. scutellar process.
sclt, scutellum.
sct, scutum.
scts, scutal suture.
sett, scutum.
senp, sensory papillae.
sepl, sternepimeral line.
sepm, sternepimeron.
sepr, sternepimeral ridge.
seps, sternepimeral suture.
sg, subgalea.
smt, Submentum.
sns, sternonotal suture.
Sp, spiracle.
sp. II, mesothoracic spiracle.
sp. III, metathoracic spiracle.
sp. 1, first abdominal spiracle.
sp. 2, second abdominal spiracle.
Sp. 3, third abdominal spiracle.
sp.8, eighth abdominal spiracle.
Spe, serial pores.
spn, spina.
sps, sternopleural suture.
ss, spinisternum,
ssr, Spinisternal ridge.
§sS, spinisternal suture.
stc, sternacosta.
stca, sternal coxal articulation.
stcs, sternacostal suture.
stg, stigma of wing.
st, stipes.
sts, sternal suture oi abdomen.
sly, stylus.
swp, scutal wing process.
tar, tarsus.
tb, tibia.
th, thorax.
tn, trochantin.
tur, transverse notal ridge.
ins, transverse notal suture.
tor, tormae.
tr, trochanter.
tra, distal trochantinal coxal articula-
tion.
trla, coxal condyle of trochantin.
ts, tergal suture of abdomen.
tt. 1, first abdominal tergite.
tt. 2, second abdominal tergite.
tt. 3, third abdominal tergite.
tt.8, eighth abdominal tergite.
tt.9, ninth abdominal tergite.
NO. 13 STAPH YLINIDAE—BLACK WELDER 95
un, Claw or ungues, we, first costo-apical area.
utr, unguitractor plate. wg, first anal area.
wh, principal area.
vd, vas deferens. zwj, jugal or axillary area.
vl, valvula. wr, stigmatal area.
vif, valvifer. wa, first dorso-apical area.
vp, ventral piece of male genitalia, wy, anal area,
vr, ridge between scutum and scutel-
lum (V-ridge). x, point reference.
vul, vulva. at, tendon of retractor muscle of claws.
vx, vertex.
y, reference to vestiture.
we, antemedian area.
wd, pivot (distal pivot) area. zg, reference to sculpture.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 14
A CADDO BURIAL SITE AT
NATCHITOCHES, LOUISIANA
(WitTH Srx PLATES)
BY
WINSLOW M. WALKER
Formerly Associate Anthropologist, Bureau of
American Ethnology
(PUBLICATION 3345)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 17, 1935
The Lord BWaftimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Pe TODO OBURDAT Shih At aN lOc rs:
LOUISIANE
By WINSLOW M. WALKER
Formerly Associate Anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology
(Wirth Srx PLATEs)
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important phases of current work in southern
archeology consists of the location and excavation of sites that can be
definitely proved to have been inhabited by known historic tribes. It
is always possible that stratigraphic evidence of earlier occupations
may be detected in definite relationship with such known sites. Until
more is discovered concerning the nature of archeological remains
that may be attributed to the Caddo, Natches, Tunica, Arkansas,
Chickasaw, Choctaw, and the several Creek tribes, we shall be unable
to draw conclusions as to the part their various ancestors played in the
building of the mounds in the Lower Mississippi Valley known to be
of pre-Columbian origin. New evidence recently brought to light may
now perform this service for the Caddo of northwestern Louisiana.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the many persons
who rendered assistance while this investigation was being carried on
at the Natchitoches site. W. A. Casler, superintendent at the Fish
Hatchery, generously granted permission to investigate the scene of
the discovery even while the work of preparing the ground for a
new hatchery was still in progress. To Prof. George Williamson and
Edward Payne, of Natchitoches, thanks are due for the readiness with
which they placed their collections at the writer’s disposal for study,
and acknowledgment is here made for the sketches and photographs
furnished by them. Mrs. Cammie G. Henry kindly permitted the
writer to examine her valuable library of Louisiana historical ma-
terial at her home, Melrose Plantation. During the survey of archeo-
logical sites in that section of the state, headquarters was established at
Briarwood, near Chestnut, the home of Miss Caroline Dormon and her
sister, Mrs. Miller, and these women rendered valuable assistance in
many ways. Miss Dormon contributed generously of her time, and
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 14
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
her knowledge of the country and her contacts with local collectors
were especially helpful.
THE FISH-HATCHERY site
During the summer of 1931, while the United States Bureau of
Fisheries was engaged in preparing the land for a new fish hatchery
at a place on Cane River Lake about a mile south of the town of
Natchitoches, an ancient Indian burial ground was accidentally dis-
covered. This body of water, formerly a bend of Red River, was cut
3
:
g
R
»
ARTIFICIAL DITCH
_—
Fic. 1.—Sketch map of burial site on fish hatchery grounds.
off in 1832 and is now a crescent-shaped lake bending sharply toward
the east. On the south side its banks rise rather steeply for about
25 feet and then form a flat level plain, which has been the scene of
past overflows. The site chosen for the fish ponds of the new hatchery
extends east from the highway for about half a mile along this bluff.
(See sketch map, fig. I.)’
Dunn (History of Natchitoches, Louisiana Hist. Quart., vol. 3, no. 1, 1920)
explains the maze of rivers and bayous in this vicinity by stating that the
Natchitoches island known to the early French explorers, about 50 miles long
by 3 or 4 miles wide, was formed by Cane River on the west and Rigolette de
Bon Dieu on the east. A smaller island was formed between the Ataho or
Little River and Rigolette de Bon Dieu. Originally flowing through a channel
now referred to as Old River, Red River cut through into Cane River about
1765 and then in 1832 broke into Rigolette de Bon Dieu, which it follows today
as far as the town of Colfax.
NO. 14 CADDO BURIAL SITE—-WALKER 3
According to the accounts of the oldest inhabitants interviewed, no
mounds ever existed at this particular site, but about the year 1916
human bones were found protruding from the bank at this point, and
two skeletons were dug out by Prof. George Williamson, of the Louisi-
ana State Normal School at Natchitoches (fig. 1, a). With the burials
were some pottery vessels and artifacts, which were sent to the Louisi-
ana State Museum in the Cabildo at New Orleans. One skeleton
lying at full length on the back was remarkable for its extremely
flattened head. The pottery was found lying near the head. Robert
Glenk, curator of the Louisiana Museum, has kindly furnished the
photograph of this burial shown in plate 1, figure 2.
When the laborers working at the fish-hatchery site dug a trench
leading south from the road at the top of the bank, they discovered
another burial at a depth of about 64 feet in the light-red sandy silt
deposited by many overflows. As these bones were unfortunately
crushed and thrown out of the trench before any thought was given
to their importance, it is impossible to state anything about the origi-
nal appearance of the burial. West of this trench, 450 to 500 feet
south of the river bank, a greater number of burials were found—
fully roo, according to the account given by W. A. Casler, the superin-
tendent in charge of the work. He says they were all shallow in-
terments, none deeper than 3 feet below the original ground surface,
and all lying extended on their backs. Near the heads of many were
pottery vessels in the form of bowls and pots, both decorated and
plain, and in some cases glass and shell beads and metal objects as
well. Mr. Casler noticed that many of the skeletons had curiously
flattened skulls. Most surprising of all was the finding of two horse
skeletons, each with a large earthen bowl placed near the head. The
bowls were of plain ware about a foot and a half in diameter and half
an inch thick. Very few stone or flint artifacts were found with any
of the burials.
Through the cooperation of the superintendent and his assistants,
it was possible to visit the scene of the discovery before all the pre-
liminary work of scraping and plowing was completed, and thus to
uncover one burial virtually untouched. This skeleton (fig. 1, b) was
found 100 feet south of the river bank, just beyond the road and 175
feet west of the central trench mentioned above. Covered by red sandy
silt it lay 2 feet below the surface on white sand in which a few frag-
ments of charcoal were present. The skeleton was that of a woman,
lying on the back, head northeast, and arms and hands at the sides.
The only objects associated with the burial were two vessels of plain
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
ware, heavily tempered with shell and poorly fired—a small pot in-
side of a conical bowl. These had been placed at the right side of the
head. The head itself was a remarkable example of extreme fronto-
occipital deformation. Measurements taken on the skeleton as it lay
gave a length of 5 feet 7 inches, and it was then photographed in situ
before any of the bones were removed (pl. 1, fig. 1).
Subsequently the skull and some of the long bones were sent for
study to Dr. Ales Hrdli¢ka, of the U. S. National Museum. The
report on them, kindly furnished by Dr. T. Dale Stewart, is as
follows:
U. S. N. M. NO. 362447. FEMALE OF ADVANCED AGE. NATCHITOCHES, LA.
Skull—Complete. Excessive fronto-occipital flattening. Generalized oblitera-
tion of the sutures. Whole face broadened to conform with the deformation
(pls. 2 and 3). Upper left first premolar lost post mortem; upper second
premolars and first and second molars lost ante mortem; remaining teeth show
extreme wear; alveolar resorption is advanced.
Skeleton—Only right humerus, left tibia, first 5 cervical vertebrae, and
hyoid. Apparently the suture was medium.
Nothing can be said of the physical type of no. 362447 because of the extreme
degree of flattening. Such a type of deformity was probably produced by pres-
sure boards and was not uncommon among the Indians of the Gulf States.
In the Luxembourg Memoire, written evidently before 1718, a de-
scription of this process of artificial head flattening is given:
They have * * * the head pointed and almost of the shape of a miter. They
are not born so; it is a charm which is given them in early years. What a
mother does to the head of her infant in order to force its tender bones to as-
sume this shape is almost beyond belief. She lays the infant on a cradle which
is nothing more than the end of a board on which is spread a piece of the skin
of an animal; one extremity of this board has a hole where the head is placed
and it is lower than the rest. The infant being laid down entirely naked she
pushes back its head into this hole and applies to it on the forehead and under
the head a mass of clay which she binds with all her strength between two little
boards. The infant cries, turns completely black, and the strain which it is
made to suffer is such that a white, slimy fluid is seen to come out of its nose
and ears at the time when the mother presses on its forehead. It sleeps thus every
night until its skull has taken on the shape which custom wishes it to receive.’
This particular description was probably based on observations
among the Natchez, but it undoubtedly applies to all the southern
tribes who practiced head deformation.
2 Swanton, J. R., Indian tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent
coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 43, p. 54, I91I.
NO. 14 CADDO BURIAL SITE—-WALKER 5
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In all probability this burial ground occupies the site or very nearly
the site of the ancient Natchitoches village visited first by Henri de
Tonti in 1690. This was the southern village of a tribe of the same
name mentioned possibly under the form Nacacahoz in the Elvas
narrative of De Soto’s expedition,’ and found farther up Red River
west of the great bend. On February 17, 1690, Tonti arrived after a
5, days’ trip, principally overland from the Taensa villages on Lake
St. Joseph. He says: “ They made us stay at the place, which is in
the midst of the three villages called Nachitoches, Ouasita, and
Capiche. The chiefs of the three nations assembled, and before they
began to speak, the 30 Taencas who were with me got up, and leaving
their arms went to the temple, to show how sincerely they wished to
make a solid peace * * * I made them some presents in the name of
the Taencas.” “
Further on he speaks of the “ Cadadoquis * * * united with two
other villages called Natchitoches and Nasoui, situated on the Red
River. All the nations of this tribe speak the same language.’ The
Natchitoches village here referred to is this time the upper one, but
it serves to show the close relationship existing between this and the
other tribes allied with the Caddo.
The next mention of Natchitoches is by Bienville, who, with St.
Denis, in April 1700 ascended Red River Valley as far as the Yatasi
village. He did not actually visit Natchitoches but stopped at the
village of the Souchitionys about a league distant. The Natchitoches,
who were settled in cabins along Red River, came with their chief
to the French camp to “ sing the calumet ”, and Bienville gave him a
peace pipe and a small present.’
A few years later, according to Pénicaut, this tribe came to St.
Denis, then commandant of the first French fort on the Mississippi,
and asked to be allowed to settle elsewhere, as their corn had been
ruined by frequent overflows of Red River. They were permitted
to locate near the Acolapissa, at that time living on the north side
of Lake Pontchartrain, and remained with them until about 1712.
St. Denis had received an order from Lamothe de Cadillac to make
a trip over into Mexico to open up trade relations with the Spaniards,
and the Natchitoches conceived the desire of returning to their old
* French, B. F., Historical collections of Louisiana, vol. 2, p. 199, 1850.
“French, B. F., Ibid., vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 72, 1846.
°Margry, P., Découvertes et établissements des Francais dans l’Amérique
septentrionale, pt. 4, p. 437, Paris, 1880.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
lands on Red River. But they reckoned without the assent of their
hosts, the Acolapissa. These Indians were loath to see them go,
especially as the Natchitoches wished to take with them their women-
folk, many of whom had intermarried with the Acolapissa, and a
massacre took place in which a great many of the Natchitoches were
killed or captured. The survivors, however, escaped into the woods,
and later joined St. Denis’ party.°
Red River at that time formed many large swampy lakes, no longer
in existence; and St. Denis and his party, after traversing some of
these lakes, came to high land, which he calls “‘ the Bluff of the Cross.”
This must have been in the neighborhood of the present town of
Colfax, since a league higher up the river they came to a branch
coming in from the left, which corresponds to the location of the
lower end of Cane River. At this point they were met by a party of
the Natchitoches, who had traveled overland and with whom was a
friendly tribe called by Pénicaut the Doustiany. This tribe had for-
merly lived near the Natchitoches, but instead of moying with them
to the Acolapissa, had remained in the same region, wandering up
and down first one side of the river, then the other, living on the
products of the chase, fruit, and potatoes.’
St. Denis describes the old village of the Natchitoches as being on an
island, formed by the separation of the river into two branches, which
reunited farther downstream. He assembled the chiefs of the two
tribes and distributed grain to them in order that they might replant
their devastated fields. He also gave them axes and mattocks, which
they used to cut the timber to build two houses for the French in the
midst of the Indian village. This was the beginning of Natchitoches
Post in 1714, to which in 1717 a fort and garrison were added, under
command of M. de Tissenet, and thus the foundations were laid
for the oldest permanent settlement in Louisiana, the present town of
Natchitoches.*
° Marery, P., Ibid., pt. 5, pp. 450, 496, 1883.
™ Margery, P., Ibid., p. 498, 1883.
* Swanton considers Pénicaut’s narratives as given by Margry and French to
be inaccurate in regard to the chronological order of events, being 2 years too
early in the description of St. Denis’ trip which resulted in the founding of
Natchitoches. The dates here given are those of the historian La Harpe (Etab-
lissement des Frangais a Louisiane, pp. 116, 129, 131, edited by A. L. Boimare;
New Orleans and Paris, 1831). According to this account St. Denis left Mobile
with a party of 30 Canadians on August 23, 1714, for the trip to the Spanish
settlements. After stopping long enough to rehabilitate the Indians in their old
location on the island of the Natchitoches, as has been recounted, he pushed on
into Texas, visited the Hasinai tribes, was carried to Mexico City to appear
NO. 14 CADDO BURIAL SITE—WALKER Wi
The post was visited by Benard de La Harpe on his trip up Red
River in 1719; he found there the Yatasi also living with the Natchi-
toches and Oulchionis (Doustiony). The Yatasi had been induced
by St. Denis on his return from Mexico to settle with the Natchitoches
about 1716, and yet the three tribes together only numbered about
150 persons. They were all, however, very friendly to St. Denis, a
circumstance much in his favor in the course of subsequent events.
The next event of major importance in the history of this site
occurred in 1731, when a band of Natchez under the Flour Chief,
driven from their stronghold on the headwaters of Black River by
Perier, came to attack St. Denis in his fort. That officer was still
able to get word out for reinforcements, but before they could arrive
from New Orleans, he sallied out with his Indian allies and a few
Spaniards from the neighboring presidio of Los Adaes and fought a
battle with the Natchez, which resulted in the defeat and almost total
annihilation of the latter at a lake a few miles to the south. Charlevoix
gives the account of this fight, as told by Sieur Fontaine to De Loubois,
the leader of the party sent to succor St. Denis, in the following words :
* * * that the Natchez had been defeated; that the Natchitoches had at the
outset wished to attack them, but being only 40 against 200, they had been com-
pelled to retire, and even abandon their village after losing 4 of their men;
that the Natchez had seized the village, and intrenched themselves there; that
then De St. Denys, having received a reenforcement of Assinais and Attacapas,
who were joined by some Spaniards, had attacked the enemy’s intrenchments
and killed 82, including all their chiefs; that all the survivors had taken flight,
and that the Natchitoches were in close pursuit.”
Their pursuers caught up with the Natchez at the lake about 3 miles
west of Cloutierville, and the sanguinary conflict that took place there
is said by Dr. Dunn to have been the origin of the name Sang-pour-
Sang (Blood-for-Blood), by which it is locally known. A hill in this
vicinity is called by the same name, corrupted in writing to “ Sampu-
sane Hill’, and this may be the source of Sibley’s information that
before the viceroy in June 1715, returned to the Spanish settlements north of
the Rio Grande, where he acquired a wife in 1716, pushed on to the Hasinai
village in June of that year, and on August 25, 1716, found himself back at
Mobile. The following January the Governor, Cadillac, sent a sergeant and six
men to take possession of the island of Natchitoches and establish a fort there
in order to keep out the Spaniards, who had already set up a presidio at Los
Adaes, some 9 leagues to the west, near the modern town of Robeline, La., and
were suspected of having cast greedy eyes on the Red River site. The prompt
move of the French forestalled the Spaniards in this attempt.
* Swanton, Op. cit., p. 250.
8 ; SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the Natchez erected a mound by the side of the lake.” The hill is,
however, entirely a natural formation, an eastern outcrop of the
region of western Louisiana known as the “ Kisatchie Wold.” But
the memory of this event still survives in the name of Natchez Lake
and the town of Natchez, just south of Natchitoches.
During the period of Spanish occupation from 1763 to 1803, the
village of the Natchitoches continued to increase in importance as a
frontier trading post for the Caddo and Hasinai tribes to the north-
west. Dr. John Sibley, making the first trip of exploration for the
United States up Red River in 1805, reports finding the remnant of
the Natchitoches still at its ancient village near the modern town
named for them.” Soon after this, however, increased pressure by
American settlers induced the Indians to move over into Texas,
where they joined their kindred of the Caddo confederacy and thus
ceased to exist as a distinct tribe.
PORT ERY
The pottery from the Cane River Lake burials shows a range of
forms including simple conical bowls, cuplike bowls with flaring col-
lars, small jugs, and subglobular bottles with short necks. The bowl
of a clay pipe was found with an opening in one side for a stem
probably of hollow cane. Unfortunately, very few of these specimens
were saved intact, so that it is impossible to state the number that may
originally have been present, or the ratio of bowls, pots, and bottles.
The ware is very homogeneous, consisting of a grayish paste, which
has a reddish tint on firing and is heavily shell-tempered. No sand
or grit has been found in the tempering of any of the pottery. Crude,
poorly surfaced, undecorated vessels as well as those showing a high
degree of polishing and incised or engraved design are present, the
two types often occurring in the same burial. A pebble seems to have
been used for the purpose of smoothing the surface, as slight ridges
and scratches can be detected, indicating the use of some such agent.
This smoothing or burnishing has been carried to various degrees of
perfection on different vessels ; an example of the high, shining polish
achieved on both the interior and exterior of a bowl is shown in
plate 5, a.
* Sibley, John, Report of exploration of Red River, included with account of
Lewis and Clarke’s expedition. Indian Affairs, American State Papers, vol. 1,
p. 724, 1832.
4 Sibley, Op. cit.
NO. I4 CADDO BURIAL SITE—WALKER 9
One method of producing the shiny-black appearance was to dip
the vessel in bear oil after firing. Bushnell observed this process
among the Choctaw and describes it thus :
When thoroughly burned it [the pottery] turns rather dark in color, where-
upon it is removed from the fire and immediately immersed in a bowl of grease,
which is absorbed by the clay and carbonized by the intense heat. This process
causes the pottery to turn black and also adds a certain luster to the surface.”
The Chickasaw had a slightly different method of achieving the
same result. They placed the pottery over a large fire of smoky
pitch pine, which imparted a smooth, black, firm surface to the vessels.
They were then rubbed to produce the desired luster. The smoke
from burning corn-meal bran was employed by the Cherokee for a
similar purpose.”
Fic. 2——Undecorated shell-tempered vessels.
In the undecorated ware the shell particles are large and give a
noticeably speckled appearance to the vessels (pl. 4, b, d). Further-
more, the light and dark areas, which give such a pleasing effect, are
probably not intentional, but are due to uneveness of firing. This ware
is often poorly fired, with the result that when first exposed to the
air, it becomes very crumbly. Edward Payne, of Natchitoches, has
in his collection two such vessels, a bottle and a small jug or pitcher,
the identification of the latter being uncertain because a portion of
the rim is missing at the point where a spout would occur if it had
formed a part of the vessel (fig. 2). It is 6 inches in height, the
* Bushnell, D. I., Jr., The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish,
Louisiana. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 48, pp. 12-13, 1900.
* Williams, S. C., Adair’s history of the American Indians, p. 456, 1930.
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
bottle 10 inches. Neither vessel bears any kind of decoration, except
for the shell speckling in the tempering. They were found on a
plantation 5 miles east of Natchitoches, when the plow turned them
up from a few inches below the surface. Mr. Williamson also has in
his collection a few similar pots from the same vicinity.
Decoration on the Natchitoches pottery consists of incised and
engraved designs. The simplest technique seems to have been that of
merely scratching or incising parallel straight and curved lines in
various combinations of the scroll. In some instances this was done
after the vessel had dried but had not been fired; in others, after
firing had taken place, and in the finest pottery of all, after even the
polishing had been completed. These scratches were then gone over
with more care, and elaborate designs, through the use of double
Fic. 3—Small bowl polished and engraved with scroll-like designs.
and reversed scrolls, spots, and reticulated spaces between them, were
produced. The final touch was given by rubbing bright red pigment.
over the engraved designs, particularly those occurring on a band
about the neck, as in the small bowl illustrated in plate 4, a.
Four elements are commonly worked into the pattern of the design,
as for example four spiral arms radiating from a disk on the bottom
of many of the bowls. On the highly polished bowl shown, these
spiral elements extend over the body up to the neck, where a different
motif of a zigzag line and large spots is found. But in the less finely
finished bottle, shown on the same plate, the area of decoration ex-
tends from the neck downward only to slightly below the shoulder.
A bowl having five radiating spiral arms in its design is shown in
figure 3. Here the rim ornamentation is limited to a narrow band of
saw-toothed elements. This bowl is owned by Mr. Casler and came
from a shallow grave where there was a flat-headed skeleton.
NO. 14 CADDO BURIAL SITE—WALKER LE
Merely as a record of negative characteristics, the fact may be
mentioned that no pottery was found with any of the following types
of ornamentation: Cord markings; punctate, stamped, or rouletted
patterns ; or painted designs other than the color-filled lines noted.
The only other ceramic object reported from this site was the pipe
bowl shown in plate 4, c. It measures 1% inches in height and is
made of the same kind of shell-tempered clay except that the particles
of shell are more minute than in the pots. In the illustration some
scratchings appear on the side of the bowl that might be mistaken for
a design, but they appear on closer inspection to be only accidental.
As has been mentioned the ware from Natchitoches is very homo-
geneous, and no suggestion of stratification has been found at the
Cane River site that would indicate an earlier occupation by people of
a different culture, but the presence of European objects in the
same graves leads to the conclusion that the pottery is seemingly of
late origin and probably represents the climax in ceramic art reached
by the potters of that particular tribe.
ASSOCIATED OBJECTS
A few stone axes and flint points were found by the workmen, but
nothing definite could be learned about them. Undoubtedly, however,
they differed but little from those in the collections of Mr. Williamson
and Mr. Payne, as the specimens there exhibited came mostly from
the immediate vicinity of Natchitoches. The axes are grooved near
the butt and show various gradations of ground and polished sur-
faces. The celts are of both the long, pestlelike type and the flat, broad
type. Notched and stemmed forms predominate among the chipped
flint arrow and spearpoints. They are made of several kinds of col-
cred flint, including novaculite from southwestern Arkansas, although
much of the flint could have come from the small boulders and pebbles
carried down by the river. In shape these artifacts range from tiny,
serrated, sharp points to large, broad, leaf-shaped blades or spear-
points with short stems. Some rather unusual types also occur,
such as notched and stemmed points with a second pair of notches
on the blade, and a few small delicate forms with only a single barb,
or with distinctly recurved barbs. Some of these have a slight re-
semblance to certain fish scales, particularly to those of the gar-pike.
A number of writers have spoken of the Louisiana Indians using fish
scales for arrowpoints,” and it is just possible that they may have
* Swanton, Op. cit., p. 58.
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
tried to imitate these scales in flint. What the specific use may have
been of such points remains a matter of conjecture. Some of these
unusual forms are illustrated in plate 6.
Beads were plentiful in the graves. Some of them were made of
shell, evidently from the columella of a marine gastropod, cut in a
round or cylindrical shape. Others were of glass or porcelain con-
sisting of a kind of white paste, apparently in imitation of the shell
beads. Blue glass beads were also found, these last being, of course,
European in origin and probably given or traded to the Indians by the
French. .
Metal objects found included a pair of scissors, a few hawkbells of
brass, some bracelets of the same material, and a double-pointed iron
spike 64 inches long. The presence of these articles suggests a reason
for not finding more cutting and piercing instruments of flint and
bone—their place had probably already been eacn by the more
efficient metal products of the white man.
DISTRIBUTION, OF POLTERY TYPES
The most interesting thing about the Natchitoches pottery is its
striking resemblance to the beautiful vessels found by Moore at
Glendora Plantation and Keno Place on Ouachita River. Comparison
of the elaborately decorated bowl shown in plate 5 with some of those
illustrated by Moore from the Glendora site brings out this unmis-
takable similarity. The design on the body of this bowl is almost dupli-
cated in several of the Glendora specimens, but the motif employed
on the neck of the vessel shows slight variations. A bowl in the pos-
session of Mr. Casler is very nearly identical with the one shown by
Moore.” Likewise, the bottles from Natchitoches are similar in shape
to those from the Ouachita region, and the same type of incised scroll
design occurs.
Professor Beyer, of Tulane University, found in a mound on Red
River near the town of Campti an earthenware bottle of this same
Glendora type. He states that the mound formed part of an old
levee, which had been partly eaten away by the river until fully two-
thirds of the original mound had been engulfed. It was estimated to
have had a diameter of 50 feet and was 6 feet high at the time Beyer
investigated it. Before his visit the site had been dug into by a party
of young men who had seen some bones and potsherds protruding from
the side of the bank. Beyer’s description of the structure of the mound
* Moore, C. B., Antiquities of the Ouachita Valley. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, vol. 14, no. 1, fig. 47, 1909.
NO. I4 CADDO BURIAL SITE—WALKER 13
states that the bottom consists of a layer of hard dark brown clay 4
feet thick. Resting on this stratum and embedded in red sandy clay
were several skeletons, near the heads of which were some pottery
vessels. Most of these burials had been disturbed by the previous
diggers, and in consequence much of the associated pottery had been
destroyed. Only one additional burial was found by Beyer, from
which came, presumably, the bottle figured by him in his report.” The
layer of red clay enclosing the bodies was 18 inches thick, and above
it was an ash bed, in which some of the wood had been reduced only
to charcoal. Over this was another Io inches of red clay overlain by
still another ash bed. There was very little charcoal in this upper
bed. The topmost layer was again red sandy clay, which covered the
entire mound, clearly outlined by a black line formed by the decaying
vegetation which had been growing on the surface when it had been
enclosed in the levee.
The finding of a vessel of this type in a mound is interesting be-
cause neither the specimens from Natchitoches nor those from the
Ouachita were found in mounds, yet Campti is only a few miles up
Red River from the first-mentioned site. It would appear, from the
description given of the mound at Campti, that none of the burials in
it were intrusive, but positive evidence on this point is lacking because
of the previous disturbance of its contents and because of the fact
that fully two-thirds of it had caved into the river.
Another instance of the same kind of pottery from Red River
Valley is furnished by Jones, who figures two bottles of the Glendora
type from a reported burial ground near Shreveport. One of them is
a bottle with the characteristic short, bulging neck and squat, sub-
globular body decorated with scroll designs ; the other looks from the
illustration as if the bulge on the neck had been present but had been
broken off, probably at the time of its discovery.”
Moore has found it again farther up Red River at the Battle Place
in Arkansas. Here many of the bowls and bottles found bear the
typical engraved scroll and spot design, and the bottles likewise have
the characteristic Glendora shape, which Moore says represents a
conventionalized cup placed on the neck of a bottle.”
The northernmost distribution of this type of pottery seems to be
along the Arkansas River in the vicinity of Pine Bluff, Ark. Moore
* Beyer, G. E., The mounds of Louisiana, II. Louisiana Hist. Soc. Publ., vol.
2 tower, pl. 1Oy 1oO7.
* Jones, C. C., Antiquities of the southern Indians, pl. 28, figs. 3, 4, 1873.
* Moore, C. B., Some aboriginal sites on Red River. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, vol. 14, no. 4, p. 560, 1912.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
found, at sites near Greer and Douglas, Ark., vessels that show the
same unmistakable design elements and technique as the Ouachita
specimens. The Douglas vessels came from a mound, but Moore makes
it quite plain that the mound was originally built for domiciliary
purposes and later used as a cemetery—hence the presence of sup-
posedly Caddo burials, which were probably intrusive at a later date.
Most of the pottery from these two sites was of the brightly painted
kind found more commonly in the lower Arkansas Valley and the
eastern part of the state. This type may have been the work of the
historic Arkansas (Quapaw) tribes, as is suggested by the finding of
European objects in burials where the painted ware is also present.”
The pottery found by Harrington in the southwestern corner of
Arkansas and believed by him to be Caddo in origin shows only slight
resemblance to that found at the Natchitoches site. The technique of
decoration in the use of engraved figures on the “ Red River ware”
is the same, but there are differences of detail in the shape of the
vessels and in certain elements of design, the scroll, for instance, being
less frequently employed. But there is a much greater range of
variation in the Arkansas vessels in both shape and ornamentation and
a greater elaboration of design, which is just what might be expected
if we are here dealing with the Grand Caddo tribe, the leader of the
confederation of which the Natchitoches and Ouachita were more
outlying members.”
When the sites farther to the west on Red River have been ex-
amined, as is being done by Prof. J. E. Pearce, of the University of
Texas, and also those somewhat more to the south of the river, we
may expect to find further similarities to the general Caddo ceramic
pattern, inasmuch as the Hasinai were known to have been closely
affiliated with the Caddo in historic times. Likewise, when more
material is available from known sites of the other Caddo tribes, such
as the Adai, Yatasi, and Petit Caddo, we may be able to discover other
subtypes of this ware here identified as Caddoan.
CONCLUSIONS
The most significant result of the Natchitoches discovery seems to
be that we have here a site known from documentary sources to have
been occupied by the Natchitoches tribe as early as the end of the
* Moore, C. B., Certain mounds of Arkansas and Mississippi. Journ. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 13, no. 4, p. 543, 1908.
” Harrington, M. R., Certain Caddo sites in Arkansas. Indian Notes and
Monogr., Mus. Amer. Indian, Heye Foundation, illus., 1920.
NO. 14 CADDO BURIAL SITE—WALKER 15
seventeenth century, where pottery of a high degree of excellence in
manufacture is found associated with objects of unmistakable Euro-
pean origin. This would indicate for the burials a period probably in
the early half of the eighteenth century, at the epoch when French
influence was at its height in Louisiana. By the time of the Spanish
occupation after 1763, it is unlikely that the Indians who had been
long in contact with European traders would still have pursued their
ancient potter’s art with the same skill and craftsmanship that pro-
duced the beautiful specimens of pottery found at the Cane River site.
Furthermore, none of the vessels from this or the sites at Glendora
and Keno Place was found in mounds, and in cases where this type of
pottery has been reported from mounds, it has been proved almost
without exception that such burials were intrusive in nature. Ap-
parently, therefore, the tribes that had reached this height of ceramic
perfection were no longer builders of mounds, if indeed they had
ever been such. The close similarity in type between the Red River
and Ouachita specimens is explained historically by Tonti’s account
of finding the “ Ouasita”’ and ‘* Nachitoches ” together at the latter’s
village, and also by LaFon’s map of the Territory of Orleans in 1806,
on which the old trading path from Natchitoches to the villages on the
Ouachita is plainly shown.
These significant chronological data offer a clue that should assist
considerably in the interpretation of many of the archeological re-
mains in northwestern Louisiana, southern Arkansas, and northeastern
Texas.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 14, PL. 1
2. Burial discovered in 1916.
TWO BURIALS AT THE CANE RIVER SITE
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 14, PL.
i)
ARTIFICIALLY DEFORMED SKULL OF SKELETON SHOWN IN PLATE i
FIGURE 1, FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 14, PL. 3
TOP AND BOTTOM VIEWS OF DEFORMED SKULL SHOWN IN PLATE 2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 94, NO. 14, PLE. 4
UNDECORATED AND CRUDELY INCISED WARE, HEAVILY
SHELL-TEMPERED
a, Bowl with red-filled lines on collar ; ), small undecorated pot found inside bow] ;
c, pottery pipe bowl; d, undecorated bowl.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ; VOE-9/4) NO a4 PLoS
POLISHED AND ENGRAVED VESSELS OF QUACHITA TYPE
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94, NO. 14, PL. 6
UNUSUAL TYPES OF SMALL FLINT POINTS FROM THE
WILLIAMSON COLLECTION
Note two gar-pike scales against cards in lower corners.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 9%, NUMBER 15
AERIAL FERTILIZATION OF WHEAT
PLANTS WITH CARBON-DIOXIDE GAS
(WiTH SIx PLATES)
BY
EARL S. JOHNSTON
Division of Radiation and Organisms,
Smithsonian Institution
ay)
4ngr HSO
un, N
Leese,
ont
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(PUBLICATION 3346)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 20, 1935
TBe Lord Battimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
ae
ARIAL, BERTILIZATION OF WHEAT PLANTS WITH
CARBON-DIOXIDE GAS
By EARL S. JOHNSTON
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(Wir Six Pirates)
INTRODUCTION
Experiments on the carbon-dioxide assimilation of young wheat
plants reported by Hoover, Johnston, and Brackett (3) * covered a
wide range of light intensities and carbon-dioxide concentrations.
Under the artificially controlled conditions used, it was shown that
there was a linear variation of carbon-dioxide assimilation with
carbon-dioxide concentration in the presence of excess light over a
limited range. With the maximum light intensity, approximately one-
fourth that of sunlight on a cloudless summer day in Washington,
carbon dioxide became a limiting factor at a concentration of about
that of normal air. Since sunlight intensity for a number of hours
per clear day is much higher than the highest intensity employed in
these experiments, it was thought that interesting and important data
might be obtained from experiments conducted with sunlight under
more natural conditions out of doors and with the carbon-dioxide
concentration surrounding the plants some 3 to 4 times that of normal
air.
It is not feasible here to make an extended review of the large
amount of work covering the subject of aerial fertilization of plants
with carbon dioxide. Many experimenters report beneficial effects.
Several sources of carbon dioxide have been utilized, including carbon-
dioxide generators, commercial tanks of the compressed gas, scrubbed
flue gas, and that arising from animal and plant manures. Both green-
house and field experiments have been tried. Carbon dioxide from
blast furnaces, after being freed of matter injurious to plants and
piped to fields where it was allowed to spread over extended areas,
caused marked improvement in crop yields. Because of the difficulty
of confining the gas over such large areas in open fields, aerial fertili-
zation with carbon dioxide is better adapted to greenhouse work.
Relatively little work on increasing the products of photosynthesis
by enriching the air with carbon dioxide has been done in this
* Italic numbers in parentheses refer to list of references at end of paper.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 15
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
country as compared with such studies in England, France, and
Germany. Cummings and Jones (2), using open cases in the green-
house, liberated the carbon dioxide from sodium-bicarbonate sul-
phuric-acid generators in such a manner that the plants were bathed
in an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide for 8 hours a day. Closed
cases were not satisfactory, since they subjected the plants to such
abnormal conditions that consistent results were not obtainable. Ex-
periments with a rather wide variety of plants indicated a general
increase in plant production and that plants can use to good advantage
more carbon dioxide than occurs normally in air. The optimum
quantity of carbon dioxide, as found by these authors, for plants
grown in open boxes (26x18 inches and 26 inches deep for the
larger plants, and 52x 28x 12 inches for the smaller ones) varied
with the plant. For lettuce this quantity was about 300 liters of
carbon dioxide a day. Cummings and Jones further conclude that
the continuity of supply is as important as the total amount.
Arthur, Guthrie, and Newell (1), working at the Boyce Thompson
Institute for Plant Research, Inc., have studied the effects on plant
growth and chemical composition of increased carbon-dioxide concen-
trations in greenhouses and in constantly conditioned rooms. The air
was enriched with carbon dioxide to about 0.3 percent, or 10 times that
of normal air. In addition to sunlight one of the greenhouses received
supplementary artificial light, and one of the rooms had artificial light
only. Several types of plants were used, the small grains being repre-
sented by barley, wheat, and oats. Their spring wheat (variety blue
stem) data are shown in table 1.
Taste 1—E-xperimental Results on the Chemical Composition of the Aerial
Portion of Wheat [from Arthur, Guthrie, and Newell (1)]
Nitrogen
(percent dry Carbohydrate (percent
weight) dry weight)
A . ———————
oN
sE 60S g
a 29 a rs a
fe be a) v
ww sO v ‘ ) 7)
lis Be = ae D iS)
"eo a & a = AomES = Ba =
oe ov = = 5) ae 3) 6 s
Treatment = = yn ‘om <q D Q =
Control greenhouse. No
heads produced <.).....1 3.4 86.4 0.93 3.42 13.56 2:73 2.87 19.16
Greenhouse 1. Straw only. 3.3 76.4 0.47 2.05 15.46 8.07 3.26 26.79
Greenhouse 2. Straw only. 6.3 68.2 0.25 1.16 15-50 20.29 1.88 37-17
24-hour day. Straw only.. 1.8 64.6 0.29 Tals 18.11 14.13 2.93 Z5eL7,
Greenhouse 1. Heads only. 0.6 71.3 0.60 2.18 25.43 28.07 6.79 60.29
Greenhouse 2. Heads only. 2.1 64.7 0.51 2.00 40.53 10.83 gare 54.48
24-hour day. Heads only.. 0.5 61.5 0.26 1.26 30.01 14.14 3.80 47.95
Greenhouse 1 received 6 hours supplementary light each night from crane.
Greenhouse 2 received same illumination and additional carbon dioxide.
24-hour day plants grown in constant-light room.
NO. 15 AERIAL FERTILIZATION OF WHEAT—JOHNSTON 3
As can be seen from the table, the plants that received both addi-
tional light and carbon dioxide were heavier and contained a greater
quantity of carbohydrates than the control plants. No signs of heading
in the control plants were noted at time of sampling, whereas those
in greenhouses I and 2 had been in head for some time. These authors
conclude that:
Small grains, such as barley and spring wheat, in contrast to potatoes, will
grow and yield well at a high temperature (78° F.) if given additional light and
carbon dioxide. The production of these grains is not favored by low temperature
when day length is long and carbon dioxide supply is abundant. The weight per
plant of barley increases with day length up to a 19-hour day. Total carbo-
hydrates also increase and nitrogen decreases. The feeding of nitrate was found
to make little or no difference in the total percentage of nitrogen in the barley
plant, the percentage remaining high only when carbohydrate synthesis was
restricted by short days.
EXPERIMENTATION
In the laboratory experiments of Hoover, Johnston, and Brackett,
in which growth was entirely under artificial conditions, the wheat
plants were confined to a double-walled glass cylinder with their roots
extended into a flask of nutrient solution. In the first type of experi-
ments run outside, Marquis wheat was planted in six 8-inch earthen-
ware pots (not glazed) containing a good garden soil. The pots were
buried to their rims in wet peat moss placed in a long, narrow cypress
box. Cylinders 30 inches in length with conical tops were made from
clear cellulose acetate sheeting and so constructed that they fitted into
the tops of the pots. The purpose of these cylinders was to confine
air of a given carbon-dioxide concentration about the plants. In order
to insure a fairly constant carbon-dioxide concentration, the desired
air mixture was introduced through a glass tube emerging centrally
just above the surface of the soil. Holes cut in the cylinders at the
tops just beneath the aprons of the cones provided an exit for the
air.
It was thought the flow of air through these cylinders would be
sufficient to keep the plants cool. It was soon realized, however, that
additional cooling would have to be employed. A means was devised
for flowing a thin sheet of water over the outer surfaces of the
cylinders. Near the tops of the cylinders small jets of water from
copper tubings wet short cloth curtains wrapped around the upper
portions of the cylinders. This gave a fairly even distribution of
water over the surfaces of the cylinders. Even with this additional
equipment, the temperatures within the cylinders were still excessively
high on clear days. This was in part due to the high temperature of
the tap water used for cooling, which frequently had a temperature of
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
25° to 28° C. as it came from the pipe line. A further reduction in
temperature was brought about by placing a white cloth reflecting
surface back of the plants and by operating a movable “ half-shade.”
A battery of these cylinders is shown in plate 1. They were placed
on a small platform about 6 feet above ground and in front of a small
frame building that faced south. The flow of water was adjusted by
the valves at the top. The waste pipe is shown below. On cloudy
days, and at night, the “ half-shade’’ was raised by means of a rope
and pulleys. |
In the space beneath the platform were located the air and carbon-
dioxide flow gauges, the mixing flasks, and the gas tanks. These are
illustrated in plate 2. Commercial carbon dioxide of high purity,
supplied in heavy steel cylinders, was passed under 15 pounds pressure
into a cushion tank and then through a flow gauge into the mixing
flask for the proper dilution with air. The air was supplied from the
high-pressure compressed-air line from the United States National
Museum. It was reduced to 15 pounds pressure and passed into a
cushion tank and then into the mixing flask. The proper mixture of air
and carbon dioxide was then passed into the cellulose acetate cylinders.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in these growth cylinders was
checked from time to time by analyses.
Several preliminary experiments were run during the summer of
1933, but the wheat grew so poorly that no definite conclusions could
be made other than that the plants receiving the higher concentrations
of carbon dioxide grew better than those receiving the lower con-
centrations. Because of the fact that the plants were too closely con-
fined in the cylinders, where the temperature was abnormally high,
and because of the necessity for using a shade and water filter, it was
decided to repeat the experiment the following summer after modify-
ing the conditions so as to make them a little less artificial.
On April 14, 1934, Marquis wheat was planted in the six 8-inch
pots used the previous summer and in three plots of soil 2x 2 feet
laid off in the yard of the Astrophysical Observatory. The conical
tops of the cylinders were removed to minimize the rise in tempera-
ture of the air surrounding the plants. Neither the water screen nor
the “ half-shade””’ was used. At the corners of two of the 2 x 2-foot
plots were placed slotted posts into which sheets of glass 24 x 30 inches
in size could be fitted. A plot with glass walls either 30 or 60 inches
high could be built up as circumstances warranted. To minimize the
removal of carbon dioxide from within these glass-walled plots by
air currents, there was laid across the top a frame over which two
layers of fly netting were stretched.
—————E———————EEEEEeEe————so_-”~”~S
NO> D5 AERIAL FERTILIZATION OF WHEAT—JOHNSTON 5
POT EXPERIMENTS
The results of the experiments in which wheat plants were grown
in pots and enclosed in clear cellulose acetate cylinders are sum-
marized in table 2. The general appearance of the plants in this
experiment is shown in plate 3.
TABLE 2.—Summary of 1934 Experiment with Wheat Grown in Pots
Data Pot 1 Pot 2 Pot 3 Pot 4 Pot 5 Pot 6
COs concentration (relative
COP NOLMall ati)\e eens ce Wiens 4.0 1A) 0.9 1.0 123
Plants per pOtemerrecue. ss 3 3 3 3 2 2
Average data per plant:
Number of tillers.... 10 8 3 2 4 8
Number of stalks.... 6 6 I I 2 6
Length of stalks (cm.) 52 54 35 40 43 45
Weight of heads (g.). 1.2 1.2 0.1 0.2 2.3 0.9
Weight of straw..... 4.8 4.4 1.0 0.7 27, 3.8
Total weight) =.=. 6.0 5.6 Tat 0.9 5.0 4.7
Not of erainse-eccee = 4.7 10.7 13 3t3 60.5 Drs
Weight of grains.... 0.134 0.283 0.029 0.050 1.500 0.279
Weight per grain.... 0.02 0.026 0.022 0.015 0.025 0.024
Culture 3, no forced ventilation.
Culture 4, ventilated by slow stream of air.
Culture 5, not enclosed.
As noted above, Marquis wheat was planted in these pots on April
14. On April 23 the carbon dioxide and air mixture treatments were
started. The rate of flow was approximately 2 liters a minute. By
May 24 the plants in pot 5 had the best color, although all were
slightly yellow, with leaves somewhat rolled. Temperatures on clear,
hot days continued to be excessive in these cylinders in spite of the
open tops. Heads appeared on plants in pots 1, 2, and 6 by June II.
On July 13 the plants were photographed (pl. 3), and on the 19th
they were harvested.
Although the conditions of this experiment were not so ideal as
could be desired, a few interesting facts appear from the data in
table 2. The number of grains and the weight of grain per plant
were much higher in pot 5 than in any of the others. The wheat
plants in this culture were not enclosed, but were entirely open to
the outside air. The lowest yield in number of grains and in weight
of grain per plant occurred in no. 3, where the plants were enclosed
in a cellulose acetate cylinder and deprived of forced ventilation. The
weight of straw was greatest in the cultures receiving the highest
concentration of carbon dioxide. It is to be expected that vegetative
growth would be helped by the addition of carbon dioxide, but it is
evident that grain production was depressed in comparison with no. 5,
the open control, when the number and weight of grain were used
as the criteria of measurement. When compared with nos. 3 and 4,
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
the enclosed controls, the number and weight of grain were greater
for the carbon-dioxide-treated cultures.
The weight per grain was somewhat higher for the plants receiving
the greater quantity of carbon dioxide. One other point of interest
is that these same plants put out a greater number of tillers than the
ones treated with less carbon dioxide. Those in no. 6 appear to be
an exception.
PLOT EXPERIMENTS
Owing to the poor stand in one of the 2.x 2-foot plots from the
planting made on April 14, these three plots were replanted on May 9.
Because of this delay, seeds sprouted in the laboratory were used for
the second planting. A good stand was obtained by May 14, at which
time the carbon dioxide-air mixture at the approximate rate of 2
liters a minute was turned into the glass enclosure surrounding plot
A; B served as the enclosed control plot, and C as the open one. On
May 17 the glass sides were increased in height from 30 to 60 inches.
The results of this experiment are summarized in table 3. The
general appearance and arrangement of these three plots and of the
6-pot experiment described above are shown in plate 4. The wheat in
the three plots, harvested July 25, is illustrated in plate 5. The dry
weight data were determined after the plants were air dried for about
2 months.
TABLE 3.—Summary of 1934 Experiment with Wheat Grown in 2 x 2-foot Plots
Plot A Plot B
(in glass (in glass Plot C
Data enclosure) enclosure) (open)
Average COs concentration (relative to
NOTMAle AIT )k Gat. havacieee aivke ee hae 3.8 Dae 0.9
Number of seeds planted............ 36 36 36
Number of plants harvested.......... 34 243} 31
Average data per plant:
Weight (grams) at harvest...... 14.52 6.39 3-47
Weight after air drying......... 8.02 5.00 3.02
Weight of water lost in drying... 6.50 1.39 0.45
Number ofpheadsiy ry. erent 7.44 4.03 2.74
Weight of heads: je aaaecn ce cies: 2.88 2.51 1.26
Weight per headjs..).o2.-e sn 0.39 0.62 0.46
Weight tofestrawieec wen ccieeia ce cer 5.14 2.49 T.75
Wieightvot grain. ecommerce 0.85 1.70 0.77
INumiber-of grainSen cicero cir 26.08 57-70 37.52
Wreightiper jorainiss1.ye tee) ers sncne) siete 0.0326 0.0295 0.0205
Number of grains per head...... iyi 14.32 13.68
At time of harvest the total weight per plant of those treated with
carbon dioxide was over twice that of the enclosed control plot (5B)
and over four times that of the open control plot (C). This great dif-
ference was due largely to the water content as is evidenced by the
dry weights, which, however, still indicate a substantial increase of
NO. 15 AERIAL FERTILIZATION OF WHEAT—JOHNSTON Wf
the carbon-dioxide-treated plants over both controls. The number
and weight of heads per plant are also greater. However, the weight
per head and the number of grains per plant are less in the carbon-
dioxide-treated plot. The large increase in total weight is due to the
weight of straw. Although the weight per grain of the plants on the
carbon-dioxide-treated plot was somewhat greater than those of the
two control plots, the number of grains per head was much less. This
experiment likewise indicates the accelerating effect of carbon-dioxide
aerial fertilization on vegetative growth and an apparent depressing
effect on grain production.
During the following summer the plot experiment was repeated
with one additional treatment. It was thought that if phosphorus and
potassium fertilizers were added to one of the carbon-dioxide-treated
plots at time of heading, these plants might be improved with respect
to their grain production. The general procedure in this experiment
was similar to that of the previous year. However, the rate of air
flow was increased to about 5 liters a minute, and the enclosed control
plot was changed to the east end of the row. The appearance of the
plants when harvested is shown in plate 6, and the data are sum-
marized in table 4.
TABLE 4.—Summary of 1935 Experiment with Wheat Grown in 2 x 2-foot Plots
Plot 3
Plot 2 (in glass
Plot 1 (in glass enclosure;
(in glass enclosure; (COs, 14 Plot 4
Data enclosure) COs added) and K added) (open)
Average COs concentration
(relative to normal air).... 0.9 4.6 4.1 iat
Number of stalks harvested... 83 I12 12 114
Total weight (grams) at harvest 230.0 313.0 378.0 144.0
Total weight after air drying.. 150.0 177.5 220.0 112.0
Weight of water lost in drying. 80.0 135.5 158.0 32.0
Nimbensopbeadsee acces cece. 79 104 117 84
Dry weight of heads........ Pitas 77.0 102.0 40.5
Dry weight per head......... 0.91 0.74 0.87 0.48
Dry weight of straw......... 78.5 100.5 118.0 71.5
Dry weight of grain......... 54.20 56.15 74.00 25.25
Numbers (of (eras. sa. esa 1,786 1,92 2,419 1,251
Dry weight per grain........ 0.0303 0.02901 0.0306 0.0202
Number of grains per head... 22.6 18.5 20.7 14.9
Each plot was planted to 72 grains of wheat, two to the hill, during
the first week of April. By April 26 the plants showed a fair start.
The glass sides, 60 inches high, were placed around plots 1, 2, and 3,
and the carbon-dioxide mixture turned into plots 2 and 3 on April 29.
The average carbon-dioxide analyses showed the concentration in plot
2 to be somewhat greater than that of plot 3, the one to which phos-
phorus and potassium fertilizers were added. This fertilizer combina-
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
tion was applied in a solution of KH,PO, at four different times
after the plants started to head out. The total quantity added was
about IO grams.
When the plants were harvested, the number to the hill could not
be determined. For this reason the data have been expressed as total
for each plot rather than the average per plant, as in table 3.
On May 10 the leaves of the plants in plots 2 and 3 showed a slight
yellowing. This yellowing of the carbon-dioxide-treated plants during
their early growth was also observed in the previous year’s experi-
ments. Later the plants overcame this initial handicap and outgrew
the plants of the control plots. By June 7 plants in plots 1 and 4 had
started to head out, but no signs of heading were in evidence in plots
2 and 3 (those receiving extra carbon dioxide) until a day or two
later. This was also in keeping with observations made the previous
year. By June 27 vegetative growth had practically ceased, and the
carbon-dioxide treatments were discontinued.
So far as vegetative growth and the amount of tillering are con-
cerned, this experiment showed a beneficial effect of the carbon-
dioxide treatment. The weight of straw was increased, as was also
the number of heads produced. Although the weight of grain was
greater on the carbon-dioxide-treated plots, the greater number of
grains produced reduced the average dry weight per grain of these
plots to practically the same value as the enclosed control, approxi-
mately 0.03 grams. The number of grains to the head was but slightly
greater in the enclosed control plot, whereas in the previous year’s
experiment it was considerably greater.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Three different experiments were carried out with Marquis wheat
to study the effects in sunlight of increased carbon-dioxide concen-
tration (in most cases about four times that of normal air) of the air
surrounding the plants during their growth. In one experiment 8-
inch pots were used, and in the two other experiments plots 2 x 2 feet
were employed. Commercial] carbon dioxide of high purity was mixed
with the air surrounding the plants. The carbon dioxide was confined
to the space about the plants by cylinders of clear cellulose acetate in
one experiment and by square glass sides in the others.
The main conclusions to be drawn from these experiments are
that air enriched with carbon dioxide (1) increased the tillering of the
wheat, (2) greatly increased the weight of straw, increased (3) the
number and (4) weight of heads, (5) increased the number of grains
—
Ee
NO. 15 AERIAL FERTILIZATION OF WHEAT—JOHNSTON 9
produced, and (6) slightly delayed the time of heading. The weight
per grain was practically the same as that of the controls even in the
experiment in which phosphorous and potassium fertilizers were
added at time of heading.
Great differences in growth were obtained in the plot experiments
between the enclosed plants and those grown in the open. The en-
closed plants were larger, heavier, and more succulent, and the weight
per grain was somewhat greater. In the pot experiment the plants in
the open culture (no. 5) grew better than those of the corresponding
control (no. 4). There appears to be some evidence, since this pot
experiment, of a toxic effect of cellulose acetate. If this is true, it
may account for the poorer growth of the plants enclosed in the
cellulose acetate cylinders. It would appear that the higher humidity
within the enclosed plots was beneficial to these plants. The evidence,
however, is not conclusive, since the temperature was also higher
within than without the enclosures.
The aerial fertilization of plants with carbon dioxide raises a num-
ber of interesting questions. Many of these can be answered, however,
by laboratory experiments under controlled conditions. The practical
application of this type of fertilization in field experiments and the
supply of carbon dioxide in sufficient amounts for practical field
work are still unsolved problems, in spite of the work that has been
done. Even its application to greenhouse culture requires the utmost
precaution. The escape of the gas mixture into a greenhouse is not
sufficient in itself, but a recirculating system, as noted by Owen (4)
aids materially toward obtaining uniform distribution. While experi-
ments in which carbon dioxide is used as an aerial fertilizer are of
important scientific value, the practical application of this type of
fertilizer in commercial work is far from being satisfactory, although
its application to greenhouse culture appears to be most promising.
REFERENCES
(1) ArtHurR, Joun M., Guturiz, JoHN D., AND NEWELL, JoHN M.
1930. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composi-
tion of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 17, pp. 416-482.
(2) Cummrincs, M. B., AND Jones, C, H.
1918. The aerial fertilization of plants with carbon dioxide. Vermont Agr.
Exp. Stat. Bull. 211, pp. 1-56.
(3) Hoover, W. H., Jounston, Eart S., AND BRACKETT, F. S.
1933. Carbon dioxide assimilation in a higher plant. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
vol. 87, no. 16, pp. I-19.
(4) OwEN, OWEN.
1923. Carbon dioxide investigations. Exp. and Res. Sta., Nursery and Market
Garden Industries’ Development Soc., Ltd., 9th Ann. Rep., pp. 82-94.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 16
Chomas Lincoln Casey Fund
hgbs EOS
PANSCOPUS SCHOENHERR
(COLEOPTERA: CURCULIONIDAE)
BY
L. L. BUCHANAN
Bureau oe entomology and Plant Quarantine,
U. S. Department of Agriculture
mE: INCRE
(PUBLICATION 3376)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 6, 1936
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. A.
Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund
TunVGENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOENHERE
(COLEOPTERA: GURCGULIONIDAE)
By L. L. BUCHANAN”
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture
The following descriptions and synoptic keys have been prepared
in order that names may be available for several undescribed species
of Panscopus in the United States National Museum collection, in-
cluding two submitted for identification by W. W. Baker, of the
Division of Truck Crop and Garden Insect Investigations, United
States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.
Panscopus may be briefly characterized as a group of North
American scarred-snout weevils with a prothoracic ocular lobe and
a rounded to narrowly elliptic scale in each serial puncture of the
elytra. The shape of the serial scale varies considerably, but in only
one species (alternatus Schaeffer) does it become hairlike. In one
subgenus (Parapanscopus) there is a well-defined double row of
spines at the apex of the hind tibiae enclosing an oblique, narrowly
fusiform, subglabrous area (corbellary plate, fig. 2, a). All the species
are flightless, and some of them doubtless are in the nature of geo-
graphic forms; but their exact status cannot be determined with
certainty at present. The rostral length of the descriptions is the
straight-line distance between the tips of the closed mandibles and
the point where the upper surface of the rostrum meets the globular
basal portion of the head. The terms anterior, posterior, dorsal, and
ventral, as applied to the surfaces and edges of the leg segments,
indicate the relative positions that would be assumed by these surfaces
if the leg were extended in a straight horizontal line at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the body.
KEY TO SUBGENERA OF PANSCOPUS
1. Mentum with a single setigerous puncture each side of middle (rarely two) ;
metepisternal suture invisible (fused with metasternum) ; rostrum above
with a scale-covered, sometimes feeble, median carina in about basal two-
thirds.) species, east Of TOOth meridian. . asc aie. eee ee ate 4.
1'This is the third contribution to be published by the Smithsonian Institution
under the Thomas Lincoln Casey Fund.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 16
nN
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Mentum without setigerous punctures; a short length of metepisternal suture
almost always visible opposite rear coxa; rostral sculpture variable; species
west Or ro0ath menidians sete cieet en ceo C ee ECR COLE Crore 31
Setigerous punctures located on face of mentum, sometimes near sides, and
usually about one-fourth distance from apex; basal margin of elytra more
or less prominent, especially laterally, the side margin sinuate just behind
humerus (sinuation feeble or wanting in alternatus) ; alternate elytral in-
tervals elevated (feebly so in erinaceus), the seventh and ninth coalescent
some distance from base (about opposite mid coxa) ; anterodistal edge of
hind tibia (in front view) less oblique and with only one well-defined row
of spines, the corbellary plate, though often discernible, vaguely defined
(effaced in alternatus) (fig. 1)........ Panscopus Schoenherr (sens. str.).
EXGS 7 deande2
Setigerous punctures located on declivous apical margin of mentum, usually
toward sides (not easily seen when mentum is retracted) ; basal margin of
elytra not or hardly prominent, side margins not sinuate; alternate elytral
intervals not elevated, the seventh and ninth reaching base independently, or
coalescent at base; anterodistal edge of hind tibia more oblique and with
two well-defined rows of spines enclosing corbellary plate (fig. 2)
Parapanscopus, n. subg.
Both prothorax and elytra with small, shiny tubercles; dorsal scales, in part,
usuallysoreen mlencth)G—1Olmm=y sen eee eee er: Phymatinus LeConte.
Elytra without tubercles, the prothorax usually with smaller and less dis-
tinctly isolated ones, or rugose tuberculate beneath the scales ; dorsal scales
not green (except in johnsom) ; length, 5-9 mm....................--- 4.
Antennal scape, when bisecting eye, reaching its hind margin; dorsum of
rostrum and of front subcontinuous in profile; prevailing color dull brown-
iShriplacle ie sade SP cto eyweers re Sea Pood En ae IET OE eee Ge
Antennal scape, which normally is densely coated with scales and setae, not
reaching beyond middle of eye; color usually paler brown, or cinereous
mottled with brown (more or less green in johinsoni) ; dorsum of rostrum
and of front subcontinuous or discontinuous in profile.................. 6.
Female abdomen 4-segmented, its derm not concealed by the vestiture. Male
abdomen 5-segmented, hairy and setose, the hairs longer and rather con-
spicuous in basal concavity; antennal scape hairy or setose; pronotum with
usually scanty setae or slender scales, the granular sculpture plainly visible;
some of the serial scales on elytral disk elliptical to sublinear and narrower
than the spunchures:2 ei. - cian ss necrosis epee ease Nocheles LeConte.
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN 3
Abdomen of both sexes 5-segmented and densely scaly-setose, the derm con-
cealed except apically ; antennal scape rather densely clothed with setae and
slender scales; pronotum with broad, usually densely placed scales; serial
scales on elytra mostly subcircular and covering, or almost covering, the
UIMOUUE CSeeev ae estore tsicisysis sat-ciste de OMe See rere eee se Dolichonotus, n. subg.
6. Trochanters without a bristlelike seta; a fine line, marking position of mete-
pisternal suture, usually visible; scales everywhere very dense; alternate
elytral intervals costate and setose, even intervals practically nonsetose
Pseudopanscopus Buchanan.
Trochanters with a bristlelike seta; metepisternal suture almost always visible
for a short distance only opposite hind coxa (or obsolete) ; even intervals
Tistalllyanwathatmledst avsparse TOwlOlsetacsaaerames ccc e meiner 7
Elytral intervals flat or subequally convex, the setae, which usually are
slender and subacute at tip, about equally developed on all intervals; or,
if the setae are evidently more numerous on alternate intervals, some of the
serial scales on elytra are slender; rostrum not or faintly carinate; pro-
notum smooth or rugose-tuberculate...............Neopanscopus Pierce.
Alternate intervals elevated (sometimes very feebly so), their setae more
abundant than on even intervals; elytral setae blunt (except in longus) ;
serial scales on elytra rounded; rostrum often carinate; pronotum more
or less rugose-tuberculate and, at middle, usually sulcate..Nomidus Casey.
al
Subgenus PANSCOPUS Schoenherr (sens. str.)
Panscopus SCHOENHERR, Genera et species Curculionidum, vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 266,
1842. (Monobasic type, as designated by Schoenherr, loc. cit., p. 267,
Barynotus erinaceus Say, Descriptions of new species of Curculionites of
North America, p. 12, 1831.)
An examination of two cotypes of P. alternatus Schaeffer shows
that this species has been misinterpreted in the literature. The error
is corrected in the following key :
1. Each serial puncture of elytra with a hair or seta, none with a rounded scale;
alternate intervals costate and setose, the even intervals usually with a
sparse irregular row of setae (2) or practically nonsetose (3d) ; scape reach-
ing two-thirds to almost entirely across eye at middle; side of elytra at
humerus straightly oblique, or at most faintly sinuate; corbellary plate
effaced; length, 5.5-7 mm [Black Mountain, N. C. (type locality) ; Mount
MutchelimuNom CAs Nicolay.) Net aay.tteu tierce siesta tase alternatus Schaeffer.
Scales of serial punctures oblong to rotund in general, a few sometimes seta-
like but not hairlike; humeral situation usually distinct; corbellary plate
present though poorly defined as a rule and not limited anteriorly by a dis-
HNECERSCCONG LOW. OF ISPINESic ees.gcgeis ae ete eae ie eicl ated tee etater reset Py,
2. All the elytral intervals setose, the alternate intervals, which usually are
slightly prominent, with more abundant setae (rarely are the alternate in-
tervals evidently costate and the second and fourth devoid of setae except
toward base and apex); front often broadly concave; rostrum wider, its
median carina usually coarse and, in profile, distinctly arched; scape reach-
ing one-half to three-fourths across middle of eye; length, 6-7 mm; ¢ un-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
known (New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, Michigan, Wisconsin;
type locality, United States).......... erinaceus Say (carinatus Pierce).
Alternate intervals distinctly costate and conspicuously setose, the even in-
tervals practically nonsetose; rostral carina less prominent, feebly arched
in profile; scape reaching three-fourths to entirely across middle of eye
(Virginia. and ‘southwatd)))o.c5 sakes, c)- steineta' = tte ate nt eythane eee GE
3. Length, 8.5-9 mm; scape reaching or slightly passing hind margin of eye in
2 (ob unknown) [Lee County, Va. (type locality) ; Tryon, N. C.]
impressus Pierce.
Length, 6-8 mm; scape a trifle shorter (North Carolina)
impressus thoracicus, n. subsp.
PANSCOPUS (PANSCOPUS) IMPRESSUS THORACICUS, n. subsp.
Panscopus (P.) alternatus Pierce, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 45, p. 304, 1913;
BucHANAN, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, vol. 20, p. 27, 1927; not
Schaeffer.
Length, 6.7-7.3 mm; width, 2.7—3.3 mm. Derm black, densely
clothed with striated brown scales, which in general have a dull
coppery tinge, paler on head, rostrum, and vertex of head, and some-
times greenish toward apex of rostrum above; elytra with or without
a few blackish mottlings. Prothorax of male inflated, the sides
strongly rounded.
Rostrum stout, somewhat shorter than prothorax, ANore densely
scaly, a little wider and more nearly flat than in alternatus, the
rather feeble scale-covered median carina not reaching beyond apical
third; front flat to broadly and feebly concave; first and second
funicular segments elongate and subequal, other segments longer
than wide except fifth and sixth, which are usually about as wide
as long. Prothorax a little wider than long in both sexes, about
seven-eighths (') and five-sevenths (2) as wide as elytra; pronotum
with a shallow median sulcus, which is wider and deeper apically,
usually interrupted at middle and sometimes obsolescent basally, the
general surface with small, scale-covered, setigerous tubercles. Elytra
distinctly narrower in 6, the sides parallel (3) or slightly rounded
and convergent (?) from behind the distinct humeral sinuation to
apical third, alternate intervals costate and with a crowded row
(double in places) of long setae; even intervals usually nonsetose, or
second and fourth with a few at base and apex, the sixth occasionally
with a widely spaced row, the serial scales variable in shape, but at
least some of them oblong or ovate (not all subcircular). Fifth
sternite of male with a feeble submedian impression. Ventral edge
of tibiae with a few erect denticulations, strongest on front pair,
feeblest on hind pair.
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOENHERR—BUCHANAN 5
Type locality —Round Knob, N. C., June 23, 24, and 26, Hubbard
and Schwarz collection; 4 #¥, 1 9.
Other locality —Black Mountain, N. C., September 13, Brooklyn
Museum collection; 3 34, whose pin label data are same as on 2
cotypes of alternatus; same locality, May 1910, F. Sherman, 1 9;
same locality, June and July 1912, Beutenmiiller, 2 $4, 2 29 in Casey
collection.
Type.—, U.S.N.M. no. 50831.
Looks much like alternatus from the same region but with pro-
thorax of Jj‘ more strongly dilated at sides, pronotal sculpture not so
rough, rostrum flatter above, and serial scales of elytra much broader.
The rostrum is longer than in erinaceus. There are at hand single
females from Pyziton and Wadley, Ala., and a fragmentary male
(the last from a toad’s stomach) from Thompsons Mill, Ga., which
are more or less closely related to thoracicus, but which cannot be
definitely associated with any described form.
PARAPANSCOPUS, n. subgen.
Body scaly and setose, the setae slender, narrowly truncate at apex
but appearing acute in side view. Rostrum stout, upper surface
arcuate and broadly discontinuous with front in profile, moderately
widened apically, slightly so basally, thicker at middle than at base,
nasal plate not sharply elevated, interantennal fovea or groove usually
present ; eyes rather small, separated above by basal width of beak,
feebly convex, subacute below ; scrobe beginning near apex of rostrum
becoming rapidly shallower posteriorly and obsolete some distance
before eye, arcuate and, directed toward lower part of eye or beneath
eye; scape setose, or scaly and setose, reaching two-thirds to three-
fourths across eye at middle; funicular segments as long as or longer
than broad, the first two longer and subequal. Prothorax with feeble
ocular lobe; pronotum without median sulcus, though the tubercles
are sometimes nearly wanting along a narrow median line; pronotal
sculpture tuberculate, the tubercles in maculosus indistinct and covered
by scales. Elytra of a characteristic ovoid shape, the sides converging
posteriorly from a little behind the broadly rounded humeri, intervals
with subregular rows of long setae, the serial scales ovate or round,
the alternate intervals not costate, the sutural one more or less dis-
tinctly vittate, at least on declivity. First abdominal suture arcuate
at middle (in female, the male unknown), intercoxal piece wide and
subtruncate or slightly advanced at middle, fifth sternite not or very
feebly impressed, hind femur nearly reaching apex of abdomen, tibiae
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
mucronate, ventral edge denticulate, at least on front pair ; third tarsal
segment bilobed.
Type of subgenus —Panscopus maculosus Blatchley (The Rhyn-
chophora or Weevils of Northeastern America, p. 105, fig. 45, 1916).
1. Length, 5.75-7.75 mm (most specimens between 6 and 7 mm) ; general color
paler brown, the head and rostrum clothed with cinereous scales and setae ;
pronotal tubercles normally obscured by scales; antennal scape clothed with
fine setae that do not conceal derm; sutural interval somewhat elevated,
especially from middle to part way down declivity and here with a double
row of setae; pale stripes often present on sutural and base of fifth elytral
intervals and on middle and sides of pronotum. [Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois,
Towa (Nat. Mus.), Missouri (Casey collection), Indiana, New York
(Blatchley) ; type locality, Posey County, Ind., as subsequently designated
by Blatchley (Blatchleyana, p. 39, 1930)]............ maculosus Blatchley.
Length 6 mm or less; color darker brown; pronotal tubercles individually
distinct ; antennal scape clothed with brown, inclined setae and prostrate
scales, the latter more or less completely covering derm apically, the scape
reaching middle of eye; sutural interval at most just perceptibly elevated
near top of declivity and here with a few extra setae, elsewhere with a
sinplesrow, palemmankings indistinctan eee cise seen oeeeee ee:
2. Prothorax at middle considerably wider than at base, the sides rather strongly
rounded; groovelike intervals between the pronotal tubercles more or less
scaly: (G@ntario) mess ose ene nen eae he ee ovatipennis, n. sp.
Prothorax faintly expanded at middle, the sides very broadly rounded; in-
tervals between pronotal tubercles almost devoid of scales (Pennsylvania)
ovatipennis verrucosus, n. subsp.
PANSCOPUS (PARAPANSCOPUS) OVATIPENNIS, n. sp.
Length, 6 mm; width, 2.8 mm. Derm piceous black to rufopiceous,
antennae and tarsi reddish, body setose and densely scaly, prevailing
color of scales brown with dull, aeneous luster, lighter and in part
greenish on pronotum, vertex of head, and apex of rostrum, a vague
lateral stripe along prothorax behind the eyes and along elytral suture
on declivity paler; dorsal setae brown and conspicuous; pronotum
with small, closely set tubercles, most of those on disk isolated
individually.
Rostrum stout, twice as long as thick at middle, feebly arcuate, a
little shorter than prothorax, above with sparse, erect setae, which
form on each side two irregular, longitudinal rows, one lateral and
one each side of median carina, the two rows uniting at side margin
above antennal socket and forming a single row thence to apex, sur-
face transversely convex and densely scaly in basal three-fourths,
flat and sparsely scaly apically, median carina distinct, though obtuse,
in middle half, ending anteriorly at the interantennal fovea, the nasal
plate feeble and merging into the adjacent rather closely punctate
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN ik
surface; head with a group of erect setae above eye, frontal fovea
absent ; scape clothed from near base to apex with inclined setae and
prostrate scales, the latter setalike and sparser basally, broader and
covering derm apically. Funicular segments elongate, the seventh
longer than broad. Prothorax transverse (5 to 4), widest a little
before middle, base wider than apex, sides distinctly rounded, scarcely
constricted apically ; pronotal tubercles at sides obscured by the scales,
all the tubercles covered by appressed scales (usually 5 or 6), which
do not close the seta-bearing puncture at the summit, the setae slender
and posteriorly inclined in general. Elytra one-third longer than
wide, wider than prothorax (4 to 3), sides progressively more
strongly convergent from about basal fifth to apex, disk moderately
declivous from about middle to the broadly emarginate base, surface
densely clothed with striated scales, the discal intervals faintly and
subequally convex, the third and fifth near base slightly more promi-
nent, each interval with a single row of long, slender, inclined setae,
the serial punctures not entirely closed by the small, rounded scales.
Beneath and legs setose and densely scaly; tibiae rather slender and
denticulate on ventral margin, hind pair obsoletely so.
Type locality—* Hamilton, Canada” (undoubtedly province of
Ontario); 7 2.
Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 50646.
P. ovatipennis looks much like some specimens of erinaceus, but
there the sides of the elytra are more nearly parallel, the beak wider
and flatter, the pronotal tubercles less distinct, the alternate elytral
intervals with more setae than the even ones, the elytra sinuate
laterally at humerus, etc.
PANSCOPUS (PARAPANSCOPUS) OVATIPENNIS VERRUCOSUS, n. subsp.
Length, 5.7 mm; width, 2.8 mm. Derm rufopiceous (perhaps im-
mature) ; body densely scaly, general color dark brown, with small
paler blotches here and there on elytra, a vague pale line on sides of
prothorax behind eyes, and a pale sutural vitta on declivity of elytra,
the prothoracic scales in part iridescent ; prothorax feebly rounded at
sides, the disk with small, closely set but isolated, setigerous tubercles.
Rostrum about twice as long as thick, shorter than prothorax, upper
surface broadly and rather strongly discontinuous with front in pro-
file, transversely convex and densely scaly in basal two-thirds, sub-
planate and sparsely scaly apically, the median carina distinct and
extending from the groovelike interocular puncture to the interanten-
nal fovea, nasal plate obsolescent, surface behind it subglabrous and
roughly punctate, the erect brown setae arranged in two irregular
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
rows each side, about as in ovatipennis. Scape scaly and setose,
funicular segments in general a little shorter than in ovatipennis, the
seventh about as wide as long. Head with a few setae above eye, some
of the scales iridescent. Prothorax slightly transverse (about 10-9),
apex not constricted; pronotum with small, scale-covered, setigerous
tubercles, those on disk more distinctly isolated than in ovatipennis
because of the virtual absence of scales in the groovelike network of
the interspaces, the scales on tubercles more or less iridescent. Elytra
ovoid, about as in ovatipennis; discal intervals feebly convex, es-
pecially laterally, the third and fifth slightly more prominent at base,
the suberect setae in a nearly regular row on each discal interval, the
serial punctures rather coarse, the serial scales round and not entirely
closing the punctures. Beneath scaly and setose, the fifth sternite (9)
broadly, faintly impressed and rugosely punctate. Legs as in ovati-
pennis, the tibiae denticulate on ventral edge.
Type locality —Rockville, Pa., March 30, 1909, Kirk and Cham-
plain; 1 9.
Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 50832.
Differs from ovatipennis in its very feebly expanded prothorax,
the more distinctly isolated pronotal tubercles, and the slightly shorter
intermediate segments of the funicle.
Subgenus PHYMATINUS LeConte
Phymatinus LeConte, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1869, p. 382. (Monobasic type,
Tyloderes gemmatus LeConte, Zool. Rep. Expl. and Surv. . . Route. .
Miss. . . to Pacific, p. 56, 1857; type locality, Shoalwater Bay, Wash.)
Specimens of gemmatus have been examined from various localities
in Washington and Oregon. Recorded from California also in Leng
catalog. The majority of the specimens seen have at least part of the
dorsal scales green, but a few are grayish white with brownish
mottlings, and one specimen is predominantly brown above. The
rostrum is relatively long, often being at least three times as long as
thick at base.
Panscopus (Phymatinus) sulcirostris Pierce is a synonym of
Agasphaerops nigra Horn (see Buchanan, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washing-
ton, vol. 20, p. 26, 1927).
Subgenus NOCHELES LeConte (PANSCOPIDIUS Pierce)
Nocheles LeContr, Amer. Nat., vol. 8, p. 453, 1874. Though it is evident that
LeConte had no intention of founding a new genus at this time, his state-
ment “in one specimen of Nocheles but 4 (abdominal segments) are visible”
can be considered as establishing the name. The earliest formal description
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN 9
of Nocheles is by Horn, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 15, p. 54, 1876. Mono-
basic type, Hylobius torpidus LeConte, Zool. Rep. Expl. and Surv. . . Route
Pe ViSSuenenLOMun Paciic ps SSaslosval
Panscopidius Pierce, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 45, p. 394, 1913. (Type of sub-
genus, by original designation, P. squamosus Pierce, loc. cit., p. 304.)
In this subgenus the rostrum usually has a fine but distinct median
carina, and the last sternite of the female is broadly and shallowly
impressed.
1. Length, 6.5-8 mm; alternate elytral intervals elevated, rather strongly so in
3, more feebly but still evidently so in 2; legs piceous black; elytral setae
longer and more conspicuous, especially on alternate intervals (Rochester,
Puyallup, and Olympia, Wash.; Portland, Oreg.; type locality, Oregon)
torpidus LeConte.
Length about 7 mm; elytral intervals even, or at most faintly elevated in
3; legs reddish; elytral setae shorter 2
2. Elytral scales apparently a little larger, and broadly overlapping on disk of
elytra [Hilgard, Oreg. (type locality) ; known from the single ¢ type]
‘ squamosus Pierce.
a. Elytral scales apparently smaller and not or only slightly overlapping.
[ Pullman, Wash. (type locality) ; 6 specimens, ¢ and 9]
squamosus var. dentipes Pierce.
Several specimens (4) and 2) collected by M. C. Lane in the Blue
Mountains of Washington, elevation 6,000 feet, are smaller (about
5.5 mm in length) and probably represent another local variant of
SQuamosus.
DOLICHONOTUS, n. subgen.
Body elongate, scaly and setose, scales very dense on elytra, the
elytral sides converging posteriorly from behind the rounded humeri,
form unusually slender in male. Rostrum stout, nearly twice as long
as wide at apex, feebly arcuate, medially unicarinate, gradually
widened basally, abruptly widened at about apical fourth so that the
apical portion of scrobe becomes broadly visible from above, upper
edge of scrobe toward apex elevated above the general surface ; scrobe
faintly arcuate, obsolete in basal half or more, beginning practically
at apex of rostrum; scape nearly straight, gradually and feebly
widened apically, first two funicular segments longer, fourth, fifth,
and sixth moniliform, seventh about as broad as long. Eyes very
feebly convex, broadly rounded above, narrowed below, separated
above by a little less than basal width of beak. Prothorax relatively
long, ocular lobe well developed; pronotum more or less distinctly
sulcate at middle, scales dense, setae slender. Scutellum small, de-
pressed. Elytra with basal margin perpendicular from side to side,
alternate (odd) intervals elevated, more strongly so in Q, the sutural
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
costa behind middle more prominent than the others, setae numerous
on elevated intervals, sparse or practically wanting on some of the
flat intervals; side margin of elytra rather abruptly bent downward
behind rear coxa. Beneath and legs setose and densely scaly. Inter-
coxal piece of first sternite wide and subtruncate. Tibiae mucronate,
third tarsal segment bilobed. A short length of the metepisternal
suture visible opposite rear coxa.
Type of subgenus.—Panscopus (Dolichonotus) convergens, n. sp.
3 and 2, length about 8 mm; d, fifth sternite about two-thirds as long as broad,
hind tibia nearly straight, its mucro subacute at tip... convergens, n. sp.
3, length 6.5 mm; fifth sternite nearly as long as broad, hind tibia broadly
emarginate on ventral margin, its mucro rounded at tip..... oregonensis,
n. sp.
PANSCOPUS (DOLICHONOTUS) CONVERGENS, n. sp.
Length, ¢ 7.8, 9 8.1 mm; width, ¢ 2.8, 9 3.3 mm. Derm black to
rufopiceous, prevailing color of scales fuscous, ¢' with elytral flanks
paler, the elytra of @ dull yellowish brown with small, irregular
blackish areas. Pronotum feebly sulcate along middle, the sulcus
present only toward apex in Q, interrupted at middle in (7, the general
surface densely scaly and with small, shining black, setigerous tu-
bercles showing through the vestiture ; elytral costae with a crowded,
double (in places triple) row of stiff, rather coarse, slightly curved
setae, posteriorly inclined on disk, more nearly erect on declivity ; fifth
sternite of ¢ two-thirds as long as broad; hind tibia of ¢ nearly
straight, its mucro subacute at tip.
Rostrum one-sixth shorter than prothorax, upper surface continuous
with front in profile, broadly convex basally, subplanate apically,
above, except at apex, densely clothed with small brown scales and
short, curved setae, surface densely punctate, apical one-fifth thinly
scaly and rugosely punctate ; nasal plate not sharply defined ; median
carina fine but distinct, and extending from base nearly to antennal
socket ; rostrum at sides densely scaly in basal half ; interocular punc-
ture minute ; head finely and densely punctate, the small scales becom-
ing quite slender on vertex, a few subprostrate setae above eye.
Prothorax slightly longer than wide (0) or slightly wider than long
(2), widest before middle, base wider than apex (about 5 to 4), sides
broadly rounded, more strongly so in 9, feebly constricted near base,
scarcely so apically ; pronotum, except median line, with small, shiny,
setigerous tubercles or granules, which are not entirely covered by
the scales and some of which are connected by fine, irregular carinae,
rest of surface densely and irregularly punctate beneath the scales.
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN 1
Elytra with rows of well separated punctures, each covered by a sub-
circular scale, sides converging from behind humeri, more strongly
so in the attenuated male, costae feebler basally, strong apically, the
sutural one very prominent at top of declivity, second interval in both
sexes with a few setae near base and on declivity, fourth interval
same in g, but in 2 with a widely spaced row from base to middle,
sixth in 2 with a similar row its entire length, sixth in ¢ with a few
basally and apically ; declivity subvertical in %, slightly reflexed in 9.
Legs densely scaly, tibiae subcylindrical in basal half, ventral edge in
apical half with a few erect denticulations, which are obsolescent on
hind legs; in ¢ the posterior face of the hind tibia is more or less
flattened in the apical third and slightly hollowed near apex, the two
anterior tibiae with a similar but feebler modification, the anterior
pair slightly sinuate ; 9 with posterior tibia modified as in <, the two
anterior pairs nearly simple ; posterior femur in ¢ longer and slenderer
than the other femora; mucro on posterior tibia of ¢ stout, tapering
to apex, and with a short, erect spur at base. First sternite of ¢ rather
deeply’ depressed, the concavity densely clothed with subprostrate
setae, rest of abdomen densely scaly and setose, the broad scales
confined to about lateral third of the first to fourth sternites and to
the latero-anterior part of the fifth, rest of surface with dense, in-
clined setae and a few prostrate scales ; abdomen of ? densely clothed
with scales and setae, the fifth sternite with finer vestiture, the first
sternite convex, the fifth’ sternite shorter and more narrowly rounded
at apex than in ¢.
Type locality —Corvallis, Oreg., May 20, 1925, E. R. Buckell, 2
specimens (¢ and Q).
Type—, U.S.N.M. no. 50647.
The male of this species is the narrowest of any Panscopus (sens.
lat.). Superficially convergens resembles torpidus LeConte, but there
the scape and abdomen are setose but not scaly, the legs at most thinly
scaly, the body form stouter, the hind tibial mucro of male without
spur, and the abdomen of female 4-segmented.
PANSCOPUS (DOLICHONOTUS) OREGONENSIS, n. sp.
Length, J 6.5 mm; width, 2.4 mm (@ unknown). Derm piceous
to rufopiceous, prothorax and rostrum blackish. Body setose and
densely scaly, general color of scales pale brown, becoming fuscous
toward apex of elytra, paler in a short vague humeral line and at sides
of pronotum. Elytral sides converging posteriorly from about basal
fourth, the general form somewhat less slender than in convergens.
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
Fifth sternite about seven-eighths as long as broad. Ventral edge
of hind tibia emarginate.
Rostrum stout, upper surface subcontinuous with head in profile,
median carina reaching from base to nasal plate. Antenna about as in
convergens. Prothorax about as long as wide, widest before middle,
sides more strongly rounded than in convergens, and slightly con-
stricted near apex, faintly so near base; pronotum medially sulcate,
general surface rather densely clothed with broad, striated scales,
which toward middle do not entirely conceal the small, shiny black,
setigerous tubercles or granules, the latter joined here and there (and
especially each side of sulcus), with irregular carinae, the scales
denser toward sides. Elytral costae with a crowded row (double for
the most part) of posteriorly inclined setae similar to those in con-
vergens, second and fourth intervals without setae except near base
and apex, sixth with a widely spaced single row, serial punctures and
scales about as in convergens. Beneath scaly and setose, the abdominal
scales dense basally, somewhat sparser on third and fourth sternites,
and replaced by inclined setae on apical portion of fifth sternite ;
intercoxal piece relatively broader and not so deeply impressed as in
¢ convergens; femora, especially hind pair, shorter and stouter than
in convergens; hind tibia broadly emarginate on ventral edge from
basal three-sevenths to apex, the posterior face in apical half flattened,
shiny, and sparsely setose; mid tibia similarly but more feebly modi-
fied, fore tibia sinuate; fore and mid tibiae denticulate on ventral
edge; hind tibial mucro ¢ broad, flattened, and faintly curved, the
apex rounded.
Type locality—Forest Grove, Oreg., June 18, 1923; 1 6.
Type—U.S.N.M. no. 50648.
The unusually long fifth sternite, the structure of the hind tibia,
and the subspatulate hind tibial mucro distinguish the male of this
species from that of convergens.
Subgenus PSEUDOPANSCOPUS Buchanan
Pseudopanscopus BUCHANAN, Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, p. 33, 1927.
[Monobasic type, P. costatus Buchanan, loc. cit., p. 33; type locality, Chilli-
wack, British Columbia. Specimens have been examined also from “ Was.,”
Puyallup, Wash. (W. W. Baker), and Seattle, Wash. ]
Subgenus NEOPANSCOPUS Pierce
Neopanscopus Pierce, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 45, p. 397, 1913. (Type as
designated by Pierce, loc. cit., Nocheles aequalis Horn, Proc. Amer. Philos.
Soc., vol. 15, p. 55, 1876.)
———
a
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOENHERR—BUCHANAN 13
1. Pronotal tubercles plainly visible among the scales, the pronotal surface con-
siderably roughened or rugose, with the median sulcus more or less devel-
oped; a feeble humeral swelling usually present (between origins of sixth
and ninth striae); pronotal scales striated; prevailing color cinereous or
cinereous mottled with brown (western North America)
aequalis Horn (cinereus Horn; vestitus Casey).
Pronotal surface smooth and completely covered with appressed, in part
nonstriated scales, the median sulcus wanting or faintly indicated; humeral
Si GLU IT ap NV CLIBEITI Seman cucyc (ac ae!s aia arose rterertciee ke re MO emer ER TTI By.
2. Length, 6.7 mm; elytral intervals evidently, though rather feebly, convex;
elytral setae long (about as in aequalis) ; prothorax wider than long, the
sides strongly rounded (Q) [Placer County, Calif. (type locality]
squamifrons Pierce.
Length, 4.4 mm; elytral intervals subplanate, the setae short and incon-
spicuous ; prothorax as long as wide (@) (Placer County, Calif.)
wickhami, n. sp.
PANSCOPUS (NEOPANSCOPUS) WICKHAMI, n. sp.
Length, g 4.4 mm; width, 1.7 mm. Body slender, subparallel,
densely scaly, the prothorax as long as broad; color irregularly and
feebly variegated brown and cinereous, the scales in part somewhat
varnishlike in luster, especially on head, prothorax, and femora;
rostrum above densely scaly to apex, only the nasal plate bare, the
apical region faintly impressed ; surface sculpture of pronotum com-
pletely covered by an even coating of flat, closely appressed scales ;
elytral intervals nearly flat, each with an irregular row of rather fine,
short, pale brownish setae, the serial punctures quite widely spaced.
Rostrum practically straight, a little more than twice as long as
thick, about five-sixths as long as prothorax, narrowest about middle,
gradually and very feebly widened basally, abruptly and strongly so
toward apex, upper surface subcontinuous with front in profile, setae
above short, scales dense, no indication of carinae through the vesti-
ture. Eyes feebly convex, separated above by basal width of rostrum ;
no frontal fovea visible. Antennal scape setose and densely scaly,
reaching a little past middle of eye, fourth to sixth funicular segments
submoniliform, seventh distinctly broader than long. Prothorax
nearly as wide at apex as at base, widest in front of middle, sides
converging and just perceptibly sinuate toward base, not constricted
apically, ocular lobe distinct; pronotum evenly convex, the setae
subprostrate and inconspicuous. Elytra broadly emarginate at base,
sides nearly straight and slightly convergent behind the unusually
narrow shoulders, surface even, the sutural interval not elevated on
declivity ; scales in serial punctures rounded, about same size and
sometimes same color as the surface scales, the former then scarcely
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
distinguishable from the latter. Beneath and legs densely covered
with cinereous scales; anterior tibial denticulations distinct, ventral
edge of posterior tibia slightly convex longitudinally and with a few
yellowish spines in addition to the fine hairs. A very short length of
metepisternal suture visible opposite rear coxa.
Type locality —Truckee, Calif., 5,800 feet, August ; Wickham; 1 ¢.
Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 50651.
The small size, narrow form, relatively wide apex of prothorax,
smooth pronotum, and short elytral setae are distinctive features of
this species. The single specimen is the only recorded male in
Neopanscopus.
P. wickhami and squamifrons differ from all described Panscopus
(sens. lat.) in the smooth coating of scales on the pronotum. Horn’s
species aequalis is a complex unit that ranges from Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, and California north to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and North
Dakota. Horn’s original description calls for ‘‘ Kansas to British
Columbia.”
Subgenus NOMIDUS Casey
Nomidus Casrty, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 8, p. 818, 1895 (Coleoptero-
logical Notices 6). (Monobasic type, N. abruptus Casey, loc. cit., p. 810.)
Including the two described herein, there are now 10 named forms
referable to this subgenus. Though all of them appear to be at least
subspecifically distinct, they are not susceptible of satisfactory dicho-
tomous arrangement on external characters; and it is evident that
some other approach (perhaps through a study of ¢ and 9 genitalia)
will be necessary to place the classification on a sound basis. The
following key is intended merely as a guide to the original descriptions
of the various forms:
1. Dorsal scales, in part, green; alternate elytral intervals distinctly costate;
scape setose only, the derm plainly visible; rostrum rather slender, about
3 times as long as thick at base, and with a fine median carina (at least
in 6) [Humtulips, Wash. (type locality) (Pan-Pacific Ent., vol. 11, p. 9,
TOSS)) ile wns Se dots cae is Ore eee oe ere johnsont Vian Dyke.
Dorsal scales not green; scape setose and squamose, the derm more or less
completely covered (the prostrate scales are sometimes slender) ; rostrum
istially “stoutery at verdes cuenta heron ete ah ee Re eee PD.
to
Hind tibia more or less bent, its lower edge broadly and feebly convex in
profile and with some coarse brown or blackish spines in addition to the
setae (at least in 2); rostrum above feebly convex in basal three-fourths,
more nearly continuous with front in profile, rostral carinae wanting or
f=1el 0) Came Mee aeert) te a ey a rere re ha Pree ee RE Ree A CO eto Bt
Hind tibia nearly straight, its lower edge with setae only (except some speci-
mens of fricarinatus) ; rostrum a little longer in most species, usually rising
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN 15
6.
“NI
more or less abruptly from head, above in basal three-fourths feebly convex
to subplanate, and usually with distinct median and sometimes lateral cari-
nae (all of which may be obscured by scales)............ ae Pee eet 6.
Elytral costae faint, scarcely perceptible except near base, and with a mostly
double row of setae; even intervals with a rather closely set row of setae
which is partly double on fourth interval; length, 7 mm (1 2) [Inyo County,
Galitaa Gy pedlocality) Mics 2s. che ac ecnenten ere cooks alee oma bufo Buchanan,
Elytral costae evident, though not always strong; setae on even intervals
sparser (except sometimes in rugicollis) or wanting................---- 4.
Color brownish black; even elytral intervals nonsetose; rostrum with or
without a median carina; mentum sometimes with a trace of a median
carina; metepisternal suture sometimes obliterated; apical declivity of
elytra distinctly reflexed in profile (in 2, the ¢ unknown) ; length, 7.5-9 mm
[‘‘ Cal.” (type locality); Fallen Leaf Lake, Calif.; Easton and Mount
PN ati Seam VVGals Hell Wee ee etter atsioieeoitt costa: Sei ee eee: abruplus Casey.
Color usually paler brown; even elytral intervals with at least a few setae;
a short length of metepisternal suture visible opposite hind coxa; apical
declivity of elytra (2) subperpendicular or slightly reflexed in profile..... 5.
Length, 6.25-7.5 mm; mentum with a feeble median carina in apical half:
pronotal rugosities coarser; even elytral intervals setose their entire length
[Mount Adams, Wash. (type locality) ; Mount Rainier and Easton, Wash.
(W. W. Baker) ; Mount Hood, Oreg. (M. C. Lane) |]. .rugicollis Buchanan.
Length, 5.25-6.25 mm; mentum noncarinate; elytral costae stronger, elytral
setae longer and in a double or partly triple row on the costae, the flat
intervals sparsely and irregularly setose, or nonsetose except toward base.
[Alta, Utah (type locality); Priest River, Idaho]...schwarsi Buchanan.
Elytral costae faint, all elytral intervals setose, the setae subsetaceous (about
shape of those in Neopanscopus aequalis) ; denticulations on lower edge of
fore and mid-tibiae strong; rostrum medially unicarinate; apical declivity
of elytra (2) more strongly reflexed; length, 7.0-8.3 mm (Washington)
longus, new species.
Elytral costae usually evident, often strong; elytral setae blunt; tibial dentic-
ulations feebler ; declivity of elytra (2) subperpendicular................ Gis
Al elytrall-intervals Setose ss o).4.4.40 2 ss dice Sed sn orclagalls otayeleaue sateen rece oe 8.
VeMmtitenvalSeneatlya Ol GiuitemnOnsetOSG-rte eee iri eleanor 0.
Length, 5.5-7.5 mm. Prothorax widest in front of middle; rostrum some-
times noncarinate, but usually with a more or less distinct median carina,
and occasionally with lateral ones also [Kaslo, British Columbia (type lo-
cality) ; Salmon Arm, Kimberly, Vernon, and Grand Forks, British Co-
lumbia; Molson and Tieton, Wash.; Big Fork, Mont.].. pallidus Buchanan.
Length, 5-6 mm. Prothorax widest about middle; rostrum usually with three
relatively coarse carinae [Parkdale, Oreg. (type locality) ; Mount Hood,
OE [are crass wet siche cake S onuwin ys wloterseeies opener sbeesheysl te Matas tricarinatus Buchanan.
Elytral costae strong; seventh funicular segment only slightly wider than
long ; rostrum usually with median carina only ; length, 6—7.. mm (Electron,
NWFAS TRE VPN tas -scxete evtiee’ Sei Tal ai svre ercne stentntys (6 ois corer olemiel > Siclaierevsieyaaere bakeri, n. sp.
Elytral costae broader and feebler; seventh funicular segment about twice as
broad as long; rostrum tricarinate; length, 6-6.5 mm [Banff Springs, Al-
berta (type locality) ; Olds, Alberta (Wickham collection) ]..ovalis Pierce.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
PANSCOPUS (NOMIDUS) LONGUS, n. sp.
Length, 7.6-8.3 mm; width, 3.1-3.8 mm. Relatively elongate ;
rostrum with a fine median carina; scape setose and scaly, nearly
reaching the middle of eye, seventh funicular segment a little longer
than broad, fourth to sixth segments not moniliform and about as
long as broad; median pronotal sulcus distinct apically, interrupted
at middle, and very feeble or obsolescent basally ; elytra with alternate
intervals not or very little elevated, the setae suberect and finer than
usual. Derm blackish or piceous black, the scales dense, cinereous and
brown, forming variable and irregular markings which sometimes
are oblique, asymmetrical bars on the elytra.
Rostrum stout, feebly arcuate, somewhat more than twice as long
as thick, about as long-as prothorax, a little longer in ¢ than in Q,
upper surface broadly and shallowly discontinuous with front in pro-
file, subplanate or feebly convex except at the nearly scaleless apical
area which is, as usual, more or less impressed between the elevated
edges of the scrobes, nasal plate well defined, its apex sometimes
produced backward to the interantennal fovea; above densely scaly
and with numerous suberect setae, the vestiture cinereous to fuscous
and not entirely covering the median carina, which extends from the
interantennal fovea to the fine interocular groove, the latter some-
times invisible ; scrobe gradually evanescent posteriorly but sometimes
nearly reaching the eye as a shallow, sparsely scaly sulcus. Prothorax
slightly wider than long in the <¢, somewhat wider in the 9, base
wider than apex (about 5 to 4), sides nearly straight and divergent
in about basal two-thirds, then converging and faintly constricted
apically ; pronotum rugose-tuberculate, the tubercles small and some-
times nearly covered with the dense scales, the summit of each tubercle
with a slender, slightly curved seta. Elytra elongate for this subgroup,
serial punctures moderately coarse, the setae slender, some of them
subacute at tip and appearing bristlelike (much as in aequalis and
squamifrons), sutural and third intervals slightly more prominent
than second, at least in apical half, the fourth interval similarly
convex in about apical half, the fifth, sixth, and seventh feebly and
subequally convex throughout. Setae, in general, more numerous on
alternate intervals, where they usually form a confused double or
partly triple row; but where the convexity of adjacent intervals is
the same, the setae may be almost or quite as abundant on even as
on odd intervals. Beneath setose and densely scaly. A short length
of metepisternal suture visible opposite rear coxa. Hind tibia nearly
straight, the ventral edge hairy but without spines.
ot
NO. 16 GENUS PANSCOPUS SCHOEN HERR—BUCHANAN 7
Type locality—Peshastin, Wash., April 8, 1934, W. W. Baker,
collector, Truck Crop no. 4995; 1 ¢ and 2 99. Same locality, April 7,
10934, P. Mi. Eide; 1 9.
Type.—d, U.S.N.M. no. 50650.
Larger and more elongate, and with finer and more nearly erect
elytral setae than in any of the nearly related forms of Nomidus. It
is closest to pallidus, but that species has the prothorax stouter and
more coarsely sculptured, the pronotal channel generally broader and
deeper, the alternate elytral intervals more prominent, and the even
ones with sparser and much stouter setae. In the female of longus
the depth of the body at the metasternum is about half the length of
the elytra; in the stouter female of pallidus, this depth is more than
half the elytral length.
PANSCOPUS (NOMIDUS) BAKERI, n. sp.
Length, 6-7.6 mm; width, 2.4-3.7 mm, the females longer and
stouter than the males. Scales dense, distinctly striated. Derm black,
prevailing color of scales cinereous and brown, the pale scales, es-
pecially those in the serial punctures of the elytra, often more or less
tinged with silvery or pale greenish blue, the brown scales often
obscure aeneous and grouped into irregular and asymmetrical elytral
brown markings that tend to form oblique bars, some specimens
dark, more rarely nearly uniform cinereous; rostrum with a usually
distinct median carina (it may be covered by scales) and occasionally
faint lateral ones; antennal scape setose and scaly, reaching middle
of eye; pronotal channel usually broad and deep apically, narrower
and shallower, or sometimes obsolescent, in basal half, rest of surface
rugose-tuberculate ; sutural (except basally) and alternate elytral in-
tervals costate, and with a crowded, in places double, row of blunt
setae, the even intervals without setae except second along middle
third of its length in some females.
Rostrum stout, feebly arcuate, somewhat more than twice as long
as thick, about as long as prothorax, much thicker and wider apically,
upper surface in profile plainly discontinuous with front, densely
scaly and sparsely setose except on and behind the well-defined nasal
plate, the surface from about apical third to apex usually lightly con-
cave, more broadly and deeply so near apex, the median carina usually
rather broad and conspicuous basally but finer or obsolescent beyond
middle ; interantennal fovea, when present, rather coarse and groove-
like; interocular fovea often groovelike, and frequently produced
backward onto the head as a very fine groove or smooth line, which
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
sometimes reaches the vertex; scrobe feebly arcuate, usually obso-
lescent at about basal third of rostrum; funicular segments 1 and 2
subequal or 1 longer, 4, 5, and 6 submoniliform, 7 a little wider than
long. Prothorax one-seventh to one-fourth broader than long, wider
at base than at apex, widest in front of middle, side margins irregu-
larly scalloped and nearly straight and convergent to base, shallowly
constricted toward apex, the constricting line rather deeply impressed
behind the strong ocular lobe and across the prosternum; pronotal
tubercles or granules coarse for this group, some of them partially
coalescent, normally nearly covered by scales, those on disk often
bare at summit, each with a puncture and seta at summit. Elytra with
rows of coarse serial punctures each nearly closed by a subcircular
scale ; costae distinct, that on sutural interval at top of declivity most
prominent ; declivity in profile perpendicular in female, oblique in
male. Beneath and legs setose and densely scaly. Ventral edge of
hind tibia nearly straight, clothed with hairs and stiff setae, but with-
out coarse spines. Fifth sternite of (', as usual in the genus, longer
and more broadly rounded at apex. A short length of metepisternal
suture visible opposite rear coxa.
Type locality —Electron, Wash., W. W. Baker, collector, Truck
Crop no. 4971 ; 64 specimens, mostly taken during June 1933, a few
in September and October.
Other locality —Montesano, Wash., March 30, 1932. W. W. Baker,
I specimen. Mr. Baker states, in litt., that this specimen may have
been washed down from the vicinity of Electron,
Type —, U.S.N.M. no. 50649.
Closest to ovalis Pierce from Alberta, but that species has three
distinct rostral carinae, the median strong throughout, the space
between median and lateral carinae groovelike, the seventh funicular
segment strongly transverse, the pronotal tubercles more numerous
but smaller, the antennal scape not reaching middle of eye, and the
alternate elytral intervals more feebly elevated. The elytral costae of
bakeri, on the average, are at least as prominent as in any other
Nomidus. The uniform dark brown color of ovalis, as previously
recorded by the writer, was the result of discoloration; the type
specimen, recently cleaned, proves to be light brown on the disk of
the pronotum and elytra, paler at the sides.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 94, NUMBER 17
(End of Volume)
GROWTH OF A GREEN ALGA IN
ISOLATED WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS
(WITH ONE PLATE)
BY
FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3377)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 21, 1936
The Lord Baltimore Prees
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
GROWTH OF A GREEN ALGA IN ISOLATED WAVE-
LENGTH REGIONS
By FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(WitH ONE PLATE)
INTRODUCTION
The importance of experimentation with isolated narrow ranges
of light for the determination of the effectiveness of specific wave
lengths on cell multiplication and chlorophyll formation in green
algae was manifested in a previous paper by Meier (1934 b). In the
research reported in that paper, 11 short wave length cut-off filters
were used to transmit light of progressively shorter and shorter wave
lengths from one transmitting only deep red, 6000 A, to one at the
other extreme, 3700 A, where most of the visible region is included.
Chlorophyll was formed in the unicellular green alga, Stichococcus
bacillaris Naegeli, under all the filters but in best condition where the
wave lengths of the blue-violet region were included. A multiplica-
tion of algal cells ranging from twofold to fourfold was obtained in
the cultures. It was evident that some ranges of wave lengths seemed
to inhibit cell multiplication and chlorophyll formation and that others
seemed to favor them. Considering the complexity of the bands of
radiation from the short wave length cut-off filters, it was clear that
the effectiveness of restricted wave-length regions could be deter-
mined conclusively by experimentation in the isolated narrow ranges
of light such as can be provided by Christiansen filters.
I am very grateful to Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, for his encouragement and helpful criticism dur-
ing the accomplishment of this research. The Christiansen light
filters were made by Dr. E. D. McAlister, of the Division of Radia-
tion and Organisms, as described in his paper, “ The Christiansen
Light Filter: Its Advantages and Limitations” (1935). W. H.
Hoover, of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, made the
nephelometer measurements, as described by Meier (1934b). Both
Dr. McAlister and Mr. Hoover made the intensity measurements,
and with the combined helpfulness and watchfulness of Dr. E. S.
Johnston, assistant director of the Division of Radiation and Organ-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 94, No. 17
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
isms, L. B. Clark, and L. A. Fillmen, the successful experiments
herein described were conducted under controlled conditions of tem-
perature, humidity, and illumination.
LITERATURE
As discussed by Meier (1934 b) in more detail, some of the earlier
investigators including Wiesner (1874), Artari (1899), Teodoresco
(1899, 1929), Nadson (1910), and Arthur (1930), who experimented
with plants growing under filters of glass and of chemical solutions,
as the case may be, without especial attention to the effect of isolated
wave lengths, found that their plants displayed more normal develop-
ment under blue light than in the other colored lights. Teodoresco
(1899, 1934) found that green light caused the poorest chlorophyll
development in plants.
In his research with Scenedesmus acutus, growing under Senebier
jars of chemical solutions, Grintzesco (1902) found that the develop-
ment of the colonies was more active in the blue-violet than in the
red-yellow light.
Shirley (1929) grew higher plants in a series of houses covered
with glass filters transmitting definite spectral regions. He found the
entire visible and ultraviolet solar spectrum to be more efficient for
the growth of the plants than any small portion of it used. The blue
region was more efficient than the red region.
A. Brooker Klugh (1925), using Wratten light filters whose trans-
mission value he had very nearly equalized, found that VY olvox aureus
and Closterium acerosum reproduced most in red light, less in blue
light, and not at all in green light.
Funke (1931) grew varieties of Sempervivum, Ajuga, and Gle-
choma under glass filters which let through different colored lights
equalling in intensity about 25 percent of the energy of diffuse day-
light. He found that the development in blue was similar to that in
full daylight, red had the same influence as darkness, green produced
the same phenomenon as red, or reduced development to a minimum ;
while in gray (subdued white light) the results were midway between
those of red and blue.
Hutchinson and Ashton (1929) irradiated live specimens of Para-
moecium caudatum in isolated wave lengths of a Hilger monochro-
matic illuminator operated at a low intensity of illumination. After
24 hours’ exposure to the red-yellow (6152-5769 A), blue (4359-
4348 A), or near ultraviolet (3663-3132 A), stimulation of growth
was observed in Paramoecia. Retardation of growth and even death
NO. 17 GROWTH OF ALGAE IN WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS—MEIER 3
were observed in the specimens exposed for 24 hours to the green
(4968-4916 A), violet (4078-3821 A), or ultraviolet (3028-2054 A).
Johnston (1932) discusses at length the effect of infrared on the
growth of plants as observed in his own experiments in addition to
the conclusions formulated by other investigators. In general, it is
agreed that if not actually destructive, the infrared region of the
spectrum is of little or no benefit to chlorophyll formation. Burns
(1933) also found infrared radiation detrimental to photosynthesis.
There exists considerable difference of opinion regarding the effec-
tiveness of the various wave lengths. Warburg and Negelein (1923)
have found the maximum chlorophyll assimilation of Chlorella vul-
garis to be in the red (6100-6900 A), with a minimum in the blue
(4360 A). Gabrielson (1935) also found assimilation in Sinapsis
alba to be greatest in red-orange light and least in the blue-violet.
Dangeard (1927), using Wratten filters, found that growth and mul-
tiplication of green algae, blue-green algae, and diatoms takes place
only in red-orange light, the other radiations affecting the plants as if
they were in complete darkness.
Numerous other scientists could be cited whose work gives rather
contradictory results. The fact that careful scientific workers have pro-
duced contradictory evidence that leads to uncertainties emphasizes
the need for precise quantitative work with isolated narrow wave
length bands of light.
Tok PEANL SPUDIED
The unicellular green alga Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli has an
elongated cell usually varying from 2 to 2.5 » in diameter and 4 to
8 » in length. Multiplication takes place by transverse division of the
protoplast which partially fills the cell and the formation of cross
walls.
Cultures of this alga remain green in the dark for 2 months on
Detmer } agar plus 2 percent dextrose, as reported by Meier (1934 4).
The best growing conditions for this alga in an artificial environment
were found by Meier (1934 b) to be in Detmer 4 solution in inter-
mittent light when the cultures were kept agitated to favor more
equal distribution of the cells, multiplication, and a more uniform
lighting condition. It was also found that rubber stoppers serve as
well as cotton plugs in 300 ce flasks containing 100 cc of inoculated
solution for an experimental period of a month. Multiplication of
this alga is proportional to the intensity of illumination, ranging from
3.76 to 34.1 microwatts/mm’. A higher intensity such as 102.0 micro-
watts/mm ”* checks the growth.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUE
The same metal table described by Meier (1934 b) was remodeled
and utilized for this experiment. (See pl. 1.) This metal table is
constructed with four glass-bottomed water baths, each holding two
300 cc Erlenmeyer flasks. The four water baths are connected to a
centrally located thermostated mixing chamber which kept the tem-
perature at 19° C. In order to insure uniform dispersion of the
algal cells, a common driving mechanism continually agitates the
Erlenmeyer flasks. One of the cultures in each bath is illuminated
from below by monochromatic light from a light filter. Mazda pro-
jection lamps served as the source of illumination. The other culture
in each bath was contained in an Erlenmeyer flask which had been
Taps_e 1.—Percentage Decrease in Intensity During Each Experimental
Period of 2 Weeks
Experiments
Filter 2 3 4
Blue
(4000-5200 A ) 2355 26.5
Green
(5000-5600 A ) 50.0 27.0
Yellow
(5500-6200 A ) 40.0 22)15 21.0
Red
(6000-7500 A ) 28.0 io 20.0
Infrared 9.5
(8500-12000 A ) 10.0
Nore.—Intensity at beginning of each experiment was 19.5 to 20 microwatts/mm 2 for
each wave-length region.
painted black to prevent the entrance of any light, thus providing
a check on the culture conditions in each bath. Each of the successful
experiments described here was run for a period of 2 weeks (April
9-23, May 7-21, and June 6-20, 1935), during which the temperature,
humidity, and light quality were maintained constant. The cultures
were given 12 hours of illumination daily, from 9: 30 a. m. to 9: 30
p.m. The cells in a drop of .ot cc volume obtained with the aid of
a specially calibrated pipette and a microscope slide marked in 2-mm
squares were counted microscopically for each culture at the beginning
and at the end of the experiment. Nephelometric measurements of
the increase of liquid turbidity as an indirect check upon the observed
multiplication of cells in each culture were also made as described by
Meier (1934b). The light intensity was 19.5 to 20 microwatts/mm *
for each wave-length region at the beginning of each experiment.
The intensity dropped during each experiment as recorded in table 1.
NO. 17 GROWTH OF ALGAE IN WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS—MEIER 5
The Christiansen filters used were constructed as described by
McAlister (1935) and are shown in plate 1 on the low wooden tables
by the lamps. The temperatures of the Christiansen filters were
recorded twice daily to insure control of the 3 monochromatic beams
utilized which were: red, yellow, and green. A Corning heat-resisting
red glass filter, “205 percent ’’, was combined with one of the Chris-
tiansen filters to give the desired region in the red. Because of the
difficulty in obtaining a light source of sufficiently high intensity
that would work practically with the blue Christiansen filter, it was
100
%
ae ||
Y,
me |
GROWTH RATE
b
a
=
RELATIVE ENERGY TRANSMITTED
Nv
o
4000 Ze 8000 10,000 12,000
WAVE LENGTH (ANGSTROMS)
Fic. 1—A diagram of the growth rate or cell multiplication (columns) super-
imposed on a diagram showing the relative energy transmitted by each filter
(curves). The columns marked L and D indicate the results of daylight and
darkness respectively. The abscissae indicate wave lengths. On the right is a
scale of ordinates for the cross-hatched columns representing cell multiplication.
On the left is a scale of ordinates representing intensities of the radiation groups.
The areas under the curves representing radiation are equal, indicating the
equality of radiation stimuli for visible and infrared rays. For full daylight,
however, no measurement of the intensity of the radiation stimulus is available,
hence the cell multiplication in daylight is not strictly comparable to the other
results.
found necessary to use a saturated solution of copper sulfate as a
filter. For the infrared cultures, two duplicate Corning heat-trans-
mitting glass filters no. 254 were used. The wave-length regions for
the filters are listed in the tables and shown graphically in figure 1.
The daylight cultures were grown under natural conditions of day
and night in a north window of a room in the Smithsonian flag tower.
The dark cultures were grown in a sealed drawer of the same room.
Numerous experiments were essayed for over a year before the
three successful ones reported were completed. In experiments 2 and
3, the red, yellow, green, and blue colors, as described above, were
tested. The green and blue results checked in both experiments, but
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
as there still seemed to be some doubt as to the results of the red
and yellow filters, a third experiment was run repeating the red
and yellow, and with the duplicate infrared filters in place of the
green and blue ones.
RESULTS
CELL MULTIPLICATION
The cells in five drops of each culture were counted and the mean
was determined. As determined by the microscopic count, there was
an average of seven cells in a drop of the initial cultures before
treatment. The ratio of the means of the final to the initial cell count
of each culture after 2 weeks of exposure to the different wave-length
regions is recorded in table 2.
The nephelometric measurement, or the intensity of the light trans-
mitted by each culture, was determined before and after each experi-
ment. The ratio of the final to the initial measurement for each wave-
length region is likewise recorded in table 2.
An examination of the cell count ratios and the nephelometric
measurement ratios in table 2 shows that the check culture varies less
from the treated culture of each region according to the nephelometric
measurements than it does according to the cell counts. The cell
counts of the check cultures show that darkness had a depressing
effect on the cell multiplication, whereas the nephelometric measure-
ments of the check cultures record the turbidity of the solution.
Consequently, it hardly seems that the nephelometric measurement
ratios should receive as much weight as the cell count ratios. A
comparison of the two types of measurement shows that the nephe-
lometric measurement results roughly support the cell count results.
A correction to the nephelometric indications was thought to be
advisable, and was made as follows. It appeared that the nephelo-
metric values showed a small increase of turbidity for the liquids
which remained in darkness. (See table 2.) As counts showed that
such a change was not caused by multiplication of algae, it seemed
probably to be due to another cause, not readily ascertained, but no
doubt equally operative with the flasks in which the algae were treated
with radiation. Hence it seemed proper to divide the nephelometric
ratios found in irradiated flasks by the mean nephelometric ratios
found in the dark or check flasks before considering the nephelometric
evidence as to algal multiplication under radiation. (See tables 2
and 3.)
GROWTH OF ALGAE IN WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS—MEIER 7
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NO. 17 GROWTH OF ALGAE IN WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS—MEIER 9
The means for the three experiments were then determined. (See
table 3.) When the means of the nephelometric results are compared
with the means of the ratios of the cell counts, the same general result
is obtained.
In figure I, a diagram is given of the cell multiplication for each
wave-length region superimposed on a diagram showing the relative
energy transmitted by each filter. The columns marked L and D indi-
cate results of daylight and darkness respectively. The blue region
produces the greatest amount of increase over the other regions, the
red and the yellow show considerable increase, the green gives a de-
crease, and the infrared shows no change. The daylight, the combina-
tion of all the regions of the spectrum, gives the largest increase of
all. Since, however, no measurement of the intensity of the radiation
stimulation was possible for daylight, the daylight results cannot be
considered exactly comparable to those of the filters where the radia-
tion stimuli are known to be equal.
The nephelometric measurement, being a very indirect method of
measurement of cell multiplication, since it is based on the turbidity
of the solution which doubtless undergoes a change during 2 weeks,
should not be regarded as anything more than a check on the results.
The cell counts give the definite result of the experiment.
CELL LENGTH
The lengths of 25 cells of each culture were measured and the
means were recorded in table 4. The accuracy of the width measure-
ments was not sufficient to show a possible increase of 20 percent.
Hence, assuming no increase in width or thickness, but increased
Tasle 4.—Cell Length (mm) at Completion of Experiments
Growth rate or
Experiments cell count Assumed
— dU ratio total
Filter 2 3 4 Mean (final /initial) volume
Blue
(4000-5200 A) .058 .004 O61 3.60 220
Green
(5000-5600 A) = .055 .049 .052 0.76 40
Yellow
(5500-6200 A) ~.051 .004 .048 .054 Dlg 139
Red
(6000-7500 A ) .048 .053 .052 .O51 2.50 128
Infrared
(8500-12000 A ) .050 .050 0.93 47
Darkness .058 .050 .056 .057 0.99 56
Daylight .062 .054 .047 .054 4.37 236
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
length and multiplication of numbers as observed, the volumes of the
cultures after exposure were proportional to the numbers in the final
column which are the products of the mean length by the growth
rate according to the cell count ratio.
These figures indicate that the blue region produced almost as large
a volume as did the daylight, and one that exceeds greatly that pro-
duced by the other regions. The red and yellow regions also show a
large increase in volume, while the infrared and the green cultures
are less in volume than those cultures exposed to darkness.
APPEARANCE OF THE CELLS
The cells that had developed in the blue, yellow, and red regions
contained beautiful green plastids, even more green than those in the
daylight cultures. There were green plastids in the cells of the cul-
tures exposed to the green wave-length region, but a great deal of
granular material was also present. In the infrared cultures, the
plastids were green, but there were large vacuoles and much granular
material present in each cell. The cells grown in the darkness con-
tained faded yellow-green plastids that were shriveled, broken, and
in general presented a disintegrated appearance.
SUMMARY
The cell multiplication and cell length of the unicellular green alga
Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli were determined after 2 weeks’ growth
in five isolated wave-length regions of artificial light, in daylight, and
in darkness.
Christiansen filters were used for the green (5000-5600 A) and
yellow (5500-6200 A) regions; a combined Christiansen filter and a
Corning heat-resisting red glass filter, ‘‘ 205 percent’, provided the
red (6000-7500 A) ; a saturated copper sulfate solution gave the blue
(4000-5200 A) ; and a Corning heat-transmitting glass filter no. 254,
gave the infrared (8500-12000 A). The light intensity was 19.5 to 20
microwatts/mm~ for each wave-length region at the beginning of
each experiment.
A multiplication of algal cells of over fourfold was obtained in the
daylight cultures by cell counts supported by nephelometric measure-
ments ; over threefold in the blue, and over twofold in the yellow and
red regions. The green region proved to be destructive, as there was
a decrease in the number of cells; the infrared region made little
change in cell multiplication, the cultures being very similar to those
NO. 17 GROWTH OF ALGAE IN WAVE-LENGTH REGIONS—MEIER II
grown in darkness. The assumed total volume based on cell length
and growth rate computations varied in a similar manner.
Cells with beautiful green plastids were found in the cultures grown
in the blue, red, and yellow regions as well as in the daylight. The
cells exposed to the green region had green plastids but contained
much granular material. Those cells exposed to the infrared had
large vacuoles and very granular contents but contained green plastids.
Colorless cells and cells with faded yellow-green plastids and dis-
integrated contents were characteristic of the cultures exposed to
darkness.
LITERATURE CITED
ArTARI, ALEXANDER
1899. Ueber die Entwicklung grtinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Kohlen-
sdure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, pp. 39-47.
ARTHUR, JOHN M.
1930. Light and the green plant. Sci. Monthly, vol. 31, pp. 343-340.
ArTHUR, JOHN M., GutHrigz, JoHN D., and NEWELL, JoHn M.
1930. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical com-
position of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 17, pp. 416-482.
Burns, G. RIcHARD
1933. Photosynthesis in various portions of the spectrum. Plant Physiol.,
vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 247-262.
DANGEARD, P. A.
1927. Recherches sur I’assimilation chlorophyllienne et les questions qui s’y
rattachent. Le Botaniste, ser. 19, 397 pp.
Funke, G. L.
1931. On the influence of light of different wave-lengths on the growth of
plants. Rec. Trav. Bot. Néerl., vol. 28, pp. 431-485.
GABRIELSEN, E. K.
1935. Die Kohlensaureassimilation der laubblatter in verschiedenen spektral-
gebieten. Planta, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 474-478.
GRINTZESCO, J.
1902. Recherches expérimentales sur la morphologie et la physiologie de
Scenedesmus acutus Meyen. Bull. L’Herb. Boiss., pp. 217-264,
406-420.
Hurcuinson, A. H., and ASHTON, Miriam R.
1929. The specific effects of monochromatic light on the growth of Para-
moecium. Can. Journ. Res., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 292-304.
Jounsron, Eart S.
1932. The functions of radiation in the physiology of plants. II. Some
effects of near infra-red radiation on plants. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., vol. 87, no. 14, 15 pp.
KuiucuH, A. BRooKER
1925. The effect of light of different wave-lengths on the rate of reproduc-
tion of Volvox aureus and Closterium acerosum. New Phytol., vol.
24, no. 3, pp. 186-190.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 94
McA.utster, E. D.
1935. The Christiansen light filter: Its advantages and limitations. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., vol. 93, no. 7, 12 pp.
Meter, FLoreNcE E.
1934a. Colonial formation of unicellar green algae under various light con-
ditions. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 92, no. 5, 14 pp.
1934 b. Effects of intensities and wave lengths of light on unicellular green
algae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 92, no. 6, 27 pp.
Napson, G. A.
1910. Uber den Einfluss des farbigen Lichtes auf die Entwicklung des
Stichococcus bacillaris Nag. in Reinkulturen. Bull. Jard. Imp. Bot.
St.-Pétersbourg, vol. 10, pp. 137-150.
Surrey, H. L.
1929. Influence of light intensity and light quality upon the growth of
plants. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Plant Res., Inc., vol. 2, no. 3,
Pp. 159-105.
1935. Light as an ecological factor and its measurement. Bot. Rev., vol. 1,
no. 9, Pp. 355-381.
Teroporesco, FE. C.
1899. Influence des diverses radiations lumineuses sur la forme et la struc-
ture des plantes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., ser. 8, vol. 10, pp. 141-262.
1929. Observations sur la croissance des plantes aux lumieres de diverses
longueurs d’onde. Ann. Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., vol. 11, pp. 201-336.
1934. Le développement des algues et la réfrangibilité de la lumiére. Rev.
Gén. Bot., vol. 46, pp. 65-74, 172-1092.
WarsBurc, Otro, and NEGELEIN, ERwWIN
1923. Uber den Einfluss der Wellenlange auf den Energieumsatz bei der
Kohlensaureassimilation. Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., vol. 106, pp. 19I-
218.
WIESNER, JULIUS
1874. Untersuchungen tiber die Beziehungen des Lichtes zum Chlorophyll.
Sitz. Math. Nat. K. K. Akad. Wiss., vol. 69, Abt. 1, pp. 327-385.
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